The aim of this study is to contribute to a better understanding of modern Turkish Cuisine by examining the studies on the historical processes of Turkish Cuisine. In addition, another aim of the study is to contribute to the refreshment of the cultural memory by revealing the forgotten..
Turkish Cuisine from Tent to Palace...
Instructor See. Furkan DEMİRGUL
Summary
When Turks migrated from Central Asia, they took their traditions to the places they went. Turks who settled in Anatolia, while preserving their old eating habits, also encountered and were affected by new food cultures. The fact that the Seljuk and Ottoman states have many different ethnic and religious groups due to their imperial characteristics are important elements that provide the richness of the Turkish Cuisine. According to the common view, Turkish cuisine is one of the best cuisines in the world. In order to determine the sources of modern
Turkish cuisine, which has a synthetic feature, it is necessary to illuminate the journey of Turks from Central Asia to Anatolia.
The aim of this study is to contribute to a better understanding of modern Turkish Cuisine by examining the studies on the historical processes of Turkish Cuisine. In addition, another aim of the study is to contribute to the refreshment of the cultural memory by revealing the forgotten food culture in this process. In order to provide the aims of the study, the literature on the subject was examined by scanning in depth. As a result of the study, the sources of modern Turkish cuisine were examined and some food and kitchen practices that were completely or partially forgotten in the historical process were determined. It is thought that the richness of Turkish Cuisine will be better reflected by reviving forgotten food and kitchen practices.
Login
Food and nutrition habits of societies are shaped depending on the geography they live in and settle as a culture over time. The food culture of Turks has also been closely related to their geography (Baykara, 2001; Güldemir, 2014). The eating and drinking habits of the Turks are a reflection of the changing geography, climate, local products and interaction with various cultures. In the formation of the Modern Turkish Cuisine;
The Central Asian past, which the Turks lived as a border neighbor of China until the 11th century, the acceptance of Islam and the interaction with the Arab culture, and the influence of civilizations such as Greek, Hittite and Iran that ruled in Anatolia in the past (Roden, 2007; Güldemir, 2014). Therefore, in order to better understand the modern Turkish Cuisine, which has a synthesis feature today, first of all, Central Asian, Seljuk and Ottoman periods should be clarified (Güldemir, 2014).
When Turks migrated from Central Asia, they took their traditions to the places they went. Turks who settled in Anatolia, while preserving their old eating habits, also encountered and were affected by new food cultures. Turks have established dominance in Anatolia for centuries and have been decisive in shaping the Anatolian Cuisine. The fact that the Seljuk and Ottoman states have many different ethnic and religious elements due to their imperial characteristics have been important elements that provide the richness of the modern Turkish cuisine (Baysal, 1993b; Ünver Alçay et al., 2015).
According to many food authorities, Turkish cuisine is one of the best cuisines in the world, along with French and Chinese cuisines (Tez, 2015). One of the reasons why Turkish cuisine is accepted as one of the best cuisines in the world is that they have been able to maintain a nomadic life and a settled life together in Central Asia, which is the homeland of the Turks, and in Anatolia, where they later migrated. With the practicality brought by the nomadic life, the agricultural foods obtained in the settled life were used, and the foods were ensured to be both durable and delicious with different applications such as fermentation and drying. Thus, a different and rich food culture has emerged from other nations (Kartari, 1986; Aydoğdu and Mızrak, 2017).
The Turks had rich herbal materials because they were Asian. They combined the spicy, raw meat flavors of Mesopotamia with Asian ingredients, and added seafood from the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts to a wide variety of plants and animals of Anatolia, creating a wide cuisine (Faraqhi, 2000; Arlı and Gümüş, 2007).
Turkish Cuisine historically; It is possible to divide it into the Central Asian period, the Seljuk period, the Ottoman period and the Republican period (Toygar, 2001; Denge and Durlu Özkaya, 2015). The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of Central Asian, Seljuk and Ottoman cuisines on the Turkish cuisine of the Republican period and to contribute to the memory and promotion of the forgotten food culture in this process.
Method
Qualitative research methods have been used in order to achieve the aims aimed in the study, and the sources related to the subject have been examined in depth. In this direction, starting from Central Asia, the first homeland of the Turks, the long migration journey and the culinary cultures of the great states they established in Anatolia, where they finally settled as a result of this journey, were examined and their effects on the modern Turkish cuisine were evaluated. The data obtained as a result of the literature research were interpreted with content analysis. In this context, it can be said that the study is a descriptive qualitative study with a scanning pattern.
Results
Cuisine of Nomadic Turks
Eating and drinking habits have been a very important issue in the social life of Turks throughout history. So much so that Turkish rulers saw it as their primary duty not to starve and bare the people under their rule (Talas, 2005; Aydoğdu and Mızrak, 2017).
Sociologist Mehmet Eröz, who has done theoretical and applied research on Turkish food culture, stated that eating and drinking habits have an important place in Turkish customs. He stated that the most obvious examples of this can be seen by examining the meals prepared in the most important meetings of social life such as plundered weddings, social gatherings, births, deaths and weddings. According to Eröz's accounts, in these meetings, tables were prepared in accordance with the tradition, meals were cooked and all the local people ate together, had fun together or shared the pain together.
Similar traditions are still maintained in Anatolia today (Eröz, 1977; Talas, 2005). In some parts of Malatya, even today, rice with meat is cooked and "dead vaccine; Forty good, three good and seven good ceremonies are held. In these ceremonies, the most honorable guests are seated in the seat, similar to the seating arrangement in Turkish traditions (Talas, 2005). In Turkish societies before the adoption of Islam, the table protocol was established according to the social status of the participants. Tribes and tribes that lost their right to orun (position) and ülüş (meal share); It also faced the risk of losing its rights such as hunting, plateau and pasture (Ögel, 1988; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
The tradition of eating collectively in Turks dates back to ancient times. Food and beverages were served to the guests according to their own rules, in celebrations of people's special days and in religious or social holidays. Many of these traditions still continue today. In Anatolia, puerperant sherbet is prepared and puerperant sherbet is served instead of coffee to those who come to visit the newborn baby, to celebrate the mother who gave birth and to wish the mother to have abundant and fruitful milk (Halıcı, 1997; Özdoğan and Işık, 2008; Güler, 2010). Similarly, it is an old tradition to offer hedik (boiled wheat) to friends and relatives to celebrate when the baby has its first tooth, which symbolizes its growth (Halıcı, 1997; Güler, 2010; Karakaş, 2013).
In Anatolia, various treats are offered on funerals, feasts and oil lamps. Various meals and desserts are served to neighbors during oil lamps, to guests visiting during holidays, and to spouses, friends and neighbors attending funerals (Tezcan, 1997; Güler, 2010). In Turkish culture, it is of particular importance to give food to guests at weddings. In the past, the owner of the wedding gave food to the guests who came to his house, but today, weddings with dinner are started. It is seen that this tradition continues in both forms (Güler, 2010). The characteristics of the geographical region in which they are located are important in shaping the cuisines of the countries.
In the harsh climate of the steppe, the most important food source for the Turks, who led a nomadic life under difficult conditions, was undoubtedly meat. Among the meats, sheep and horse meat, which are the most suitable animals for nomadic life, were preferred more (Aksoy, 1998; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012). In addition to these, the Kyrgyz frequently consumed game animals such as rabbits and deer (Ögel, 1991; Talas, 2005; Roux, 2007; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
The Turks learned to canned very early in order to preserve the meat without spoiling it for a long time, due to the high production of meat and the fact that meat is a valuable food. Canned meat has been one of the most important export products of Turks sold to China. In addition to canning, Turks also benefited from drying, roasting and fermentation methods to preserve food. Not only meat but also offal of slaughtered animals in Central Asia were used. Turks cooked meat and offal on tandoor or fire. In addition, the meats were cut into cubes and roasted and stored for the winter (Baysal, 2002; Erdoğan Tool, 2016). The meat was also salted and dried under the sun. Dried meat, also known as pastrami, has been a very valuable food for the Turks.
The Turks, who separate their meat products according to the seasons, preferred the pastrami made in the fall more than the fresh meat in the spring. Another method of preservation of meat is fermentation. The ancient Turks learned how to make sausage, which is still loved and consumed today, by fermenting meat in intestinal casings. Sucuk is made of finely chopped roasted meat, rice and flour in some regions, while in some regions it is made of brain, tail fat and blood. Among the meat dishes consumed by the ancient Turks, topik üngük (trotter soup), which means a meal made from the heel bone, had an important place (Ögel, 1991; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Before the Turks accept Islam, it is necessary to talk about the animals whose meat is forbidden to be eaten. According to many researchers doing research on ancient Turks, Turks; they did not keep pigs and did not eat pork. Information obtained from Chinese sources also confirms this. Although the unsuitability of pigs for nomadic life is a factor in this, the fact that the settled Uighurs did not consume pork although they consumed many types of meat before accepting the Mani religion suggests that cultural or religious reasons may also play a role in the reasons for not consuming pork (Akpınar, 1999; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012). With the Uighurs abandoning the belief in the Sky God and converting to the Mani religion, many changes have occurred in their eating habits. This situation is described in the Uyghur Inscriptions as follows:
“The people who used to eat meat will eat rice from now on, and in the country where killing was common before, goodness and goodness will be the rule from now on” (Barthold, 2011; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
In Turkish cuisine, milk (usually mare's milk) is consumed alone, as well as dairy products such as butter, cheese, yoghurt, ayran, kefir, cottage cheese, meals and desserts with milk or yoghurt have been consumed for a long time (Ceğirim, 2001; Güler, 2010; Ertaş et al. Gezmen-Montenegro, 2013). Kumis, a light alcoholic milk drink obtained by fermentation of mare's milk, whose lactose content is higher than that of other farm animals, was among the favorite drinks of the ancient Turks (Baysal, 1993a; Güler, 2010).
It is generally accepted that the production of yoghurt from milk and tarhana, in which yoghurt has a significant share, were discovered by the Turks and brought to world cuisines (Belge, 2016). Yogurt is dried for use in winter. Dried yogurt, known as Kurut, is still made in some regions of Anatolia (Yılmaz, 2002; Güler, 2010). Another use of yogurt was through the production of cheeses such as Çökelek and Keş.
Cheeses such as coquette and keş, which are obtained by churning yoghurt in overalls obtained from animal skins, extracting the butter, removing the oil, salting, boiling and straining, are still made by Anatolian Yoruks today (Güler, 2010).
The ancient Turks also made many cereal-based dishes. For example, ravioli, which is thought to have been learned by the Uyghurs from the Chinese, has become one of the most widely spread dishes in the world (Algar, 1991; Güldemir, 2014; Belge, 2016). Different variants of ravioli spread from Mongolia to Italy (ravioli) (Belge, 2016). The Kyrgyz sow grains such as barley, wheat, oats, and millet and used them by grinding them with a kind of foot mill, whose workings are now unknown (Ögel, 1991; Talas, 2005). Since the Uyghurs settled down, they used more agricultural products in their diet. There are many records in Chinese sources that the Uyghurs cultivated watermelons. In the Uyghurs, grapes were produced in abundance besides watermelon.
They also advanced in winemaking. It is also mentioned in Chinese sources that peas, broad beans and coriander were widely grown by the Uyghurs (Öcal, 1985; Talas, 2005). Three types of bread, generally loaf, flatbread and yufka, were consumed in ancient Turks similar to today (Baysal, 1993b; Güler, 2010). Bread was mostly made from wheat, barley and millet. Yuga, yuvga or yuvka, which is still being made today under the name of yufka, is made of wheat or barley flour. Yarma (forged) and bulgur were also made from wheat, as is done today. Keskek, which is made by cooking wheat with meat, was among the important dishes of some celebrations, as in today's Anatolian Yoruks (Eröz, 1977; Bedirhan, 2009; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
In Central Asia, Turks consumed tarhana soup, yogurt soup, flour soup and lentil soup a lot (Güler, 2010). In addition, a kind of soup called umaç (ogmaç, omaç) was made from various grain products, the main ingredient of which is usually round-cut noodles (Ögel, 1991; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
The ancient Turks consumed various herbal drinks as well as animal drinks such as kumiss, which they made from milk and mare's milk. One of them was Tarasun. Tarasun is a drink obtained by making wine from millet and mixing it with kumiss (Gökalp, 1976; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Wine is also made from grapes. It is known that Hun Turks prepared drinks called medus, which is thought to be honey wine, and camum, which is made from barley (Bedirhan, 2009; Güler, 2010; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012). Apart from these, Turks also consumed another drink called begni, which is made from wheat and millet (Kafesoğlu, 1993; Talas, 2005). In addition, they consumed a non-alcoholic beverage called Io on behalf of the Hun Turks, which was produced by sweetening yoghurt with cherries and apricots (Kafesoğlu, 1992; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012). Boza, which is mostly made of millet, is among the beverages consumed by Central Asian Turks (Argilli, 2005; Güler, 2010).
In the light of the data obtained as a result of the literature research, some foods belonging to the Central Asian Turkish Cuisine are summarized in Table 1.
The homes of the nomadic Turks became bristle tents. The fact that a special area is reserved for the kitchen in the tents shows the importance given by the Turks to nutrition. Kaşgarlı Mahmud, in his work Divan-u Lügatit Türk; In addition to tools such as glass, selcibicek (cooking knife), meat (meat hook), iwrik (ibrik), tewsi (tray), bucket, hair, skewer, soku (mortar) and susgak (susak, wooden water bowl); earthenware and wooden items such as jars, bowls, urns (wooden ladles), spoons, boats, salt shakers; He reported that leather tools such as cistern (water bag), tulkuk (tuluk), tagar (sack), sanatac (processed sheepskin bag) were used by ancient Turks (Kaşgarlı Mahmud, 1989; Genç, 2008; Erdoğan Tool, 2016). Although the pot seems to be more suitable for settled life, it is known that nomads carried a small number of such utensils with them (Belge,
Table 1. Some Foods Consumed in Central Asian Turkish Cuisine
|
Food & Beverage Type
|
|
Food and drinks
|
|
Meat and meat products
|
|
Sheep and horse meat (Aksoy, 1998; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012)
Rabbit * and venison * (Ögel, 1991; Talas, 2005; Roux , 2007; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Canned meat, roasted meat and offal (Baysal, 2002; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
|
|
|
|
Pastrami and sausage (Ögel, 1991; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
|
|
Milk and milk products
|
|
Mare's milk, yoghurt, buttermilk, cottage cheese and butter (Ciğerim, 2001; Güler, 2010).
Kefir (Ertaş and Gezmen-Montenegro, 2013).
Keş (Güler, 2010).
|
|
|
|
Kurut (Yılmaz, 2002; Güler, 2010).
|
|
|
|
Tarhana (Document, 2016).
|
|
Grains and Legumes
|
|
Barley, wheat, oats and millet (Ögel, 1991; Talas, 2005).
Bulgur, split (forged) and keskek (Eröz, 1977; Bedirhan, 2009; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Noodles (Ögel, 1991; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
|
|
|
|
Ravioli ** ( Algar , 1991; Güldemir, 2014; Belge, 2016).
|
|
|
|
Lentils (Güler, 2010).
|
|
|
|
Peas ** , broad beans ** and coriander ** (Öcal, 1985; Talas, 2005).
|
|
Breads
|
|
Loaf, flatbread and yufka ( yuga , yuvga or yufka ) (Eröz, 1977; Baysal, 1993b; Bedirhan, 2009; Güler, 2010; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
|
|
soups
|
|
heel snot (trotter soup) (Ögel, 1991; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Tarhana soup, yogurt soup, lentil soup and flour soup (Güler, 2010).
|
|
|
|
Umaç ( ogmaç , omaç ) soup (Ögel, 1991; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
|
|
Soft drinks
|
|
Io *** ( Kafesoğlu , 1992; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012). Boza ( Argilli , 2005; Guler, 2010).
|
|
Alcoholic beverages
|
|
Kimiz (Baysal, 1993a ; Güler, 2010).
Begni ( Kafesoğlu , 1993; Talas, 2005).
Tarasun (Gökalp, 1976; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Wine ** (Öcal, 1985; Talas, 2005).
|
|
|
|
Medus *** and camum *** (Bedirhan, 2009; Güler, 2010; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
|
|
Fruits
|
|
Grapes ** and watermelon ** (Öcal, 1985; Talas, 2005).
Cherry *** and apricot *** ( Kafesoğlu , 1992; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
|
* Mostly Kyrgyz consumed it. ** It was mostly consumed by Uyghurs. *** It was mostly consumed by Hun Turks.
Seljuk Cuisine
The Seljuks came to Mesopotamia and Anatolia as semi-nomadic, and in this geography, which is suitable for agriculture, they started to benefit from agriculture more by adopting a settled life in time. Therefore, Seljuks benefited more from agricultural foods compared to Nomadic Turks. Since the Seljuks, who embraced Islam, preferred a simple life away from ostentatiousness, the amount of information about their food culture reached today is limited (Şahin, 2008; Denge & Durlu Özkaya, 2015).
In the 11th century, the kitchens in the Seljuk Palace were under the control of the chief cooks, and the wineries were under the supervision of the chief drinkers. In addition, a kitchen was found in a separate part of the house in every Turkish house, similar to today's, and this part was called ashlık, which means the place where food is cooked. The word ashlık, which is a Turkish name, has been replaced by the Arabic word matbah and the cuisine derived from it (Genç, 2008).
During the Seljuk period, the kitchen was a continuation of the traditional Turkish cuisine. In addition, with the transition to settled life, the Turkish food culture has become even richer (Gürsoy, 1995; Aydoğdu and Mızrak, 2017). Turks were influenced by the geographies they visited during their long migration journeys starting from Central Asia and the cuisine of Anatolia where they settled. Seljuk Cuisine has been a simple cuisine consisting of animal foods such as meat and milk, which are the natural results of nomadic life, and agricultural foods that constitute the main source of livelihood of settled life. In this kitchen, which is generally based on two meals, mid-morning and evening times have been important times for meals. The mid-morning meal usually consisted of pastries and satiating foods. The Seljuks, who did not have a separate lunch habit, mostly consumed fruits and beverages during lunch breaks.
Meat was an indispensable element of the cuisine during the Seljuk period, as it was in the nomadic Turks. While mainly sheep, goat, lamb and horse meat are used in meat dishes, dishes made from fish, poultry and game animals are also consumed. Among meat dishes, kebabs called biryan (büryan) were consumed a lot. Seljuks also consumed offal of animals such as liver, heart, kidney, head, tripe and intestines by cooking them in tandoor ovens (made of stone or clay). In this period, similar to those in Central Asia, loaf, flatbread and phyllo breads were made from barley, oat, rye and wheat flour, called baked or tandoori bread.
However, these breads started to be consumed with every meal, unlike the Central Asian Turkish Cuisine. Bee girde, which is mentioned in the Seljukname, means phyllo bread made of wheat flour only, and it is thought that these breads were made for the consumption of the sultans. In this period, cookie-shaped breads baked with steam and called chukmin were also consumed (Oral, 2008; Şahin, 2008; Baysal, 2012; Közleme, 2012; Kızıldemir et al., 2014; Akın et al., 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
Seljuks used yarma (tattoo) in toyga vaccine, soup with yoghurt, keskek and ashura. Ripe wheat was first beaten with heifer, then it was separated from its chaff by being tossed, moistened and beaten again with wooden hammers in stone mortars and splitting was obtained by removing the bran of the wheat. After the wheat is harvested, boiled and dried, bulgur is obtained by breaking it between two stones rotated by hand or water power. Flour, on the other hand, was obtained by finer grinding of wheat in these mills. Doughs made from wheat flour were baked on a sheet metal and phyllo, şebit, katmer and flatbread were produced. Boza was produced by the fermentation of wheat and barley (Kaşgarlı Mahmut, 1989; Akın et al., 2015).
Wheat is also used a lot in making wheat soup. Wheat soup is mentioned in the Mesnevi, which contains important information about the Anatolian Seljuk State, as follows: „Donkey's belly is straw, grass; one's stomach wants wheat soup. As it can be understood from here, it has become a habit to consume wheat soup in Seljuks (Oral, 2008).
In the Seljuks, sheep, goats, cows and mares were kept as dairy animals. Only a small part of the milk was consumed fresh, and a large part of it was converted into various dairy products to be consumed or traded in periods when milk was scarce. Foods such as yoghurt, ayran, butter, kefir, kurut, kumis and cheese were produced from milk. Although the consumption of kumiss decreased due to the alcohol content among the Seljuks who adopted the religion of Islam, it did not completely end. Some of the yogurt was turned into butter by spreading on churns made of animal skin or tree stumps.
Tarhana and kurut were made from another part of the yogurt. Kurut is generally softened with water in winter and used to make soups and meals. By processing yoghurt into ayran, some of the ayran was consumed in meals, and the other part was made into toyga vaccine soup or ayranlı soup.
In addition, cottage cheese was obtained by boiling the buttermilk and evaporating its water (Arıhan, 2012). The meals served to the guests in the ceremonies held in the Seljuknames written in the Seljuk period; It is stated that it consists of pilafs, boranis, stews, kebabs and helises (keşkek) as well as sherbets, soups, tutç, tirit, slurry, bread and vegetable dishes, and desserts such as halva and kadayif (Akın et al., 2015).
Vegetables such as eggplant, spinach, radish, turnip and carrot have been used in the kitchen since ancient times. In the spring, herbs such as kiwi, manger and watermelon were collected and consumed. Although broad beans and lentils have been used in Traditional Turkish Cuisine since Central Asia, chickpeas and beans entered the Seljuk Cuisine after settling in Anatolia. Spices, on the other hand, are thought to have entered the Seljuk cuisine as a result of the interaction with the Arabs (Erdoğan, 2010; Arıhan, 2012; Baysal, 2012; Akın et al., 2015).
Seljuks also did fruit growing; It is also known that fruits such as apples, plums, grapes and quince are consumed fresh, as well as dried and made with molasses in winter, called kak.
Vinegar and wine were also made from grapes (Akın et al., 2015). In the kitchen of this period, sherbets produced from various fruits, honey or molasses were the beverages consumed by almost everyone (Şahin, 2008; Erdoğan Tool, 2016). Molasses and honey are generally used to sweeten food and beverages. Molasses has also been used in the production of desserts such as flour halva, almond halva, zerde and paluze (a type of starch dessert) (Akın et al., 2015). In today's Konya Cuisine, especially at weddings, zerde is among the dishes that have survived from the Seljuks. It is a kind of rice dessert colored yellow with saffron (Oral, 2008). However, saffron is not generally used in zerdes made in Konya today.
During the Anatolian Seljuk period, banquet tables were organized especially on Friday mornings. In addition to this, great importance was given to the guest in the Seljuks, and inns and caravanserais were built for the guest to stay. In the cities of the period, soup kitchens were also established for the poor. Free halva was distributed to the public on important days and nights such as oil lamps in the cities, thus emphasizing the importance of holy days and nights (Demir, 2008; Un, 2009; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
In the light of the data obtained as a result of the literature research, some foods consumed in the Seljuk Cuisine are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Some Foods Consumed in Seljuk Cuisine
|
Food & Beverage Type
|
|
Food and drinks
|
|
Meat and meat products
|
|
Red meat (sheep, goat, lamb, horse and game), white meat (poultry and fish), offal (liver, heart, kidney, head, tripe and intestines) and biryan (buryan) kebab (Oral, 2008; Şahin , 2008; Baysal, 2012; Közleme, 2012; Kızıldemir et al., 2014; Akın et al., 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
|
|
|
|
Tirit (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
Milk and milk products
|
|
Milk (sheep, goat, cow and mare), yoghurt, ayran, butter, kefir, kurut, cottage cheese and tarhana (Arıhan, 2012).
|
|
Grains and Legumes
|
|
Barley, oat, rye and wheat (Oral, 2008; Şahin, 2008; Közleme, 2012; Kızıldemir et al., 2014; Erdoğan Tool, 2016). Bulgur and splitting (forging) (Kaşgarlı Mahmut, 1989; Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
|
|
Rice and helise (keskek) (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
|
|
Broad beans, lentils, chickpeas and beans (Erdoğan, 2010; Arıhan, 2012; Baysal, 2012; Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
Breads
|
|
flatbread , dough, bee gyro and chukmin (Oral, 2008; Şahin, 2008; Közleme, 2012; Kızıldemir et al., 2014; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
|
|
|
|
Sebit and katmer breads (Kaşgarlı Mahmut, 1989; Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
soups
|
|
Wheat soup (Oral, 2008).
Toyga vaccine soup, soup with yogurt, and soup with ayran ( Kaşgarlı Mahmut, 1989; Arıhan, 2012; Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
|
|
Stews and stick soup (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
Desserts
|
|
Flour halva, almond halva, zerde, paluze and kadayif (Akın et al., 2015).
Ashure (Kaşgarlı Mahmut, 1989; Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
|
|
Honey and molasses (Şahin, 2008; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
|
|
Soft drinks
|
|
Hosaf, fruit sorbets, honey and molasses sorbets (Şahin, 2008; Akın et al., 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
Vinegar (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
|
|
Boza (Kaşgarlı Mahmut, 1989; Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
Alcoholic beverages
|
|
Kimiz (Arıhan, 2012).
Wine (Young, 2008; Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
Fruits and vegetables
|
|
Apple, plum, grape, quince and kak (dried fruit) (Şahin, 2008; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
Eggplant, spinach, radish, turnip and carrot (Erdoğan, 2010; Arıhan, 2012; Baysal, 2012; Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
herbs
|
|
Madımak, manger and watermelon (Erdoğan, 2010; Arıhan, 2012; Baysal, 2012; Akın et al., 2015).
|
Ottoman kitchen
The wealth of the Ottoman Empire, which was spread over three continents, was naturally reflected in the cuisine and reached a unique imperial splendor. Being a rich, thrifty and healthy cuisine has been one of the most important features that distinguishes Ottoman cuisine from world cuisines (Ünsal, 2008). The most important factors shaping the Ottoman Cuisine; traditional
Turkish culinary culture, acceptance of Islam, interaction with Arab and Iranian cuisines during migrations, Greek, Georgian, Armenian and Jewish minorities living in the remnant of the empire and a rich range of products grown in Anatolia (Erdoğan Araci, 2016). In addition, as the borders of the Ottoman Empire expanded, the cuisine became even richer.
According to the food writer Artun Ünsal, who has done various researches on Ottoman Cuisine, as quoted from Aşık Paşazade, Osman Gazi, along with his tribe, migrated from the plateau to the winter quarters, from the winter quarters to the plateau, and preserved the remaining goods of his tribe, such as cheese, dried yoghurt, butter and cream. He gave various gifts. Again, according to Artun Ünsal's transfer, II. In the Beyazıt period, in a law dated 1502, "fresh curd cheese, coarse curd cheese, fresh tongue cheese, fresh meadow cheese, Mudurnu cheese, Shumen cheese, Karaman cheese, Sofia cheese, Esme cheese, Midilli cheese, curd cheese, pickled cheese (white cheese)" ), Limni Tulum Cheese, Izmit Tulum Cheese, Rumeli Tulum Cheese, Fresh Kashkaval Cheese,
Turkish Cuisine experienced its brightest period throughout history during the Ottoman Empire. At that time, foreign state members who came to visit the Ottoman Palace were very impressed by Turkish dishes and sent their own cooks to Turkish cooks to train them (Şanlıer et al., 2012; Kızıldemir et al., 2014).
It would be correct to divide the Ottoman cuisine into two as palace and public cuisine. Although the folk cuisine is not as spectacular as the palace cuisine, it has a very rich menu in terms of taste and variety. The table of the people in the Ottoman Empire consisted of bread sprinkled with sesame, some mutton or pastrami, rice soup or rice pilaf, and various vegetables and fruits. Meals were eaten modestly on the floor, sitting on a table cloth. Along with the food, syrup, honey sherbet, rose water and fruit compotes were generally drunk. No other tool other than a spoon was used at the table. Soup and compote, and sometimes rice, were eaten with a spoon, and in other dishes, the fingers of both hands were used as forks.
Ottoman Palace Cuisine can be considered as the pinnacle of Ottoman food culture. The meals of the people of the palace were made in Matbah-ı Amire, which is thought to have been established during the Fatih period. Palace Cuisine worked like giant food factories that cooked food for thousands of people every day. The meals of the sultan were prepared in the aviary section, which served only the sultan and located in a separate place inside the Matbah-ı Amire. Jams, compotes, sherbets, pickles and all kinds of desserts were made in the halva house section of Matbah-ı Amire. In addition, pastes were produced in the halvahane, which were consumed as a source of healing for the sultan and all the people of the palace, especially his harem.
The most famous of these pastes is Nevruziye (mesir) paste, which is prepared by mixing various spices and herbs in Nevruz, which is celebrated as the beginning of spring in Turks (Bilgin, 2008; Samancı, 2008; Erdoğan Araci, 2016).
In the Ottoman Palace, it was believed that there was a close relationship between nutrition and health and the meals were prepared accordingly. Palace tables also fulfilled a symbolic task. According to this, the most important indicator of the generosity of the sultan, who was accepted as the shadow of Allah on earth, was the tables he prepared. In addition, who will sit where at the tables and food etiquette are determined by laws. Starting from the Fatih era, sultans began to eat their meals alone or with their harems (Bilgin, 2008).
It was reported by foreign ambassadors and observers that in the feasts given in the palace during the reign of Fatih, mainly meat and meat dishes, rice, various vegetable dishes, desserts and sherbets were served. In Ottoman mansions, seasoned soup, lamb kebab, tandoori kebab, fried chicken, artichoke stew, stuffed eggplant, stuffed apple, stuffed egg, rice pilaf, noodles, cheese pie, baklava, apricot compote, rice pudding, asure and various sherbets are served. It was stated that it was served (Akın et al., 2015).
Chefs, journeymen and cook soldiers were the people who were in charge of cooking in the kitchen in the last period of the Ottoman Empire. Cooks are also divided into groups according to their specializations as kebab maker, rice maker, borek maker, fast food maker, compote maker, dessert maker and pastry maker. The people who were in charge of cooking in the Sultan's kitchen were the head chef, the second chef, the head of the kebab, the head of the dessert, the head of the pastry shop, the head of the fisherman, the head of the dieter, the chefs and the soldiers. II. The establishment of a fish kitchen in the palace since the reign of Mahmud was a novelty compared to previous periods (Samancı, 2008).
Meat has been a very important food in the Ottoman Cuisine as well as in the traditional Turkish Cuisine. While mostly sheep and lamb meats were preferred in meals, beef was generally used in pastrami production. Beef, which started to enter the kitchen from the second half of the 19th century, was used in the preparation of European dishes, which would be served mostly to foreign guests as sirloin, veal thigh and chop. In the Ottoman Palace, the meat of predatory animals and reptiles was not consumed on the grounds that it was haram.
With the same belief, aquatic animals other than crows, magpies, horses, donkeys, mules and fish were not consumed. In addition to sheep and lamb, the people of the palace and the wealthy also consumed animal meats such as chicken, chicken, goose, duck, peacock, partridge and pigeon. Especially chicken meat was consumed a lot. Turkey, on the other hand, began to enter the Palace Cuisine after the 18th century. Priest's stew is a Greek dish and it was introduced into Armenian, Georgian and Ottoman cuisines from the Greeks, but while the Greeks made priestly stew with wine, Muslim Ottomans preferred to use vinegar instead of wine (Samancı, 2008; Yerasimos, 2014; Tez, 2015).
According to the food historian Özge Samancı, dishes made from sheep, chicken and fish are generally prepared with four cooking techniques: kebab, stew, cutlet and frying. Kebabs are prepared by cooking the meat on a skewer directly over the coal fire or by cooking the meat in a pot over low heat on the stove or in the oven. In fact, meat cutlets, which differ little from kebabs, are prepared by cooking fillet meat on the grill and then heating it in a little liquid. Stew is prepared by slowly boiling meat pieces in water over low heat. Fries, also called pans, are generally prepared by dipping fish, sheep or lamb livers in flour and frying them in plenty of oil (Samancı, 2008).
Meals called pilaki were prepared by the Christian minority in Istanbul, especially during their fasting periods. These dishes have been one of the common meals consumed by Muslims, Christians and Jews since the 19th century. Vegetable dishes prepared by cooking vegetables such as eggplant by shaking them in a pot with lightly frying and cooked meat are called shrugging. Vegetable dishes called moussaka are prepared by frying the vegetables first and then cooking them in oily water with minced meat (Samancı, 2008).
In the Ottoman Empire, the people grew vineyards and fruit trees, and they produced products such as raisins, vinegar, molasses, must, fruit pulp, and molasses sausage with walnuts. Greek and Christian minorities also produced wine. In Central Anatolia, a kind of molasses delight called meatballs is made by mixing molasses and starch, pouring it on trays and cutting it after cooling. Also, marmalades were prepared from molasses by boiling the molasses called pelver (Tez, 2015).
Desserts and sherbets were as important foods as meat and rice in the Ottoman Cuisine.
It is not possible to think of Ottoman Cuisine without dessert and sherbet. Desserts entered the Ottoman Cuisine not from the Central Asian Turkish Cuisine, but mainly as a result of the acceptance of Islam and increasing interaction with the Arabs. Therefore, Muslim identities played an important role in the sweet habits of the Ottomans. Islamic traditions such as opening the iftar with dates, consuming gullaç, kadayif and baklava in Ramadan, and ashura in Muharram, cooking halva after the deceased and pouring bites were important in the entry of the dessert into the Ottoman cuisine. Halva, which means sweet in Arabic, has been the traditional dessert of Muslim Turks.
Halva became the common dessert not only of the palace but also of every part of the public (Yerasimos, 2014). According to the transfer of historian Arif Bilgin, who makes researches on Ottoman Cuisine, the most famous of the halvah made in the Palace Cuisine was zulbaye halva, the production of which increased a lot during the holidays. Although it is stated that paluze and jelly desserts were made in the records of the Palace Cuisine, there is no information about their contents and types. In the Ottomans, any mixture containing rice flour, milk and sugar was called pudding (Bilgin, 2008). Lokma, lalanga and kadayif were the most consumed dumplings in the early Ottoman period.
Baklava, which is very popular today, was seen as a worthless dessert in the Ottoman Cuisine until the 18th century (Yerasimos, 2014).
The most popular desserts in the Ottoman Empire were chicken breast, which is a milky dessert prepared with the separation of fiber and fiber after the chicken breast is cooked, and Kazandibi, which is prepared by lightly burning the bottom of it. Since sugar cane was scarce in the Ottoman Empire, molasses, raisins or honey were used to sweeten food and drinks (Tez, 2015). Okra, a vegetable of African origin, began to enter the Palace Cuisine from the 17th century. In the last period of the Ottoman Empire, it is stated in the records that the dried form of okra was taken to the kitchen in large quantities.
In the 19th century, vegetables of loquat (American) origin such as tomatoes, beans, potatoes, fresh peppers, macadamias, squash, pumpkin and corn were consumed a lot in the Ottoman Palace. Although tomato is one of the most used vegetables in modern Turkish cuisine, its history in Turkish cuisine is quite new. According to the records of the period, tomatoes started to enter the Palace Cuisine from the 1690s. Tomatoes, which were previously consumed as raw and green, have started to be consumed in ripe red form over time. Even in the 1840s, tomatoes and tomato paste were not used much in Turkish dishes (Samancı, 2008).
In Ottoman Anatolia, bread was made almost exclusively from wheat flour, while bread was made from barley flour only in times of famine and war. Evliya Çelebi (17th century) reported that Kurds living in the mountains around Diyarbakır also made bread with red millet.
The most popular among the breads made from wheat flour by the Ottomans was the white bread made by removing the germ and bran of the wheat (Tez, 2015). In addition to white bread in the Ottoman Empire, nan-ı saint bread (bread consumed mostly by the people), medium quality hass bread (nan-ı hass medium), mediocre bread (nan-ı adi), flat white bread (fodula), long good bread. White bread (firancala), phyllo bread and loaf bread made from wholemeal flour were also consumed (Samancı, 2008). Rice began to enter the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 16th century.
Pilaf has been an important dish that is consumed in the Ottoman Palace Cuisine as well as in the public cuisine. It is said that there are 27 types of pilaf made with bulgur, rice and couscous in the Ottoman cuisine, such as plain, tomato, almond, pistachio, grape, pea, chickpea, eggplant and chicken (Tez, 2015).
In the 17th century, plain oil (produced by boiling butter and removing the residue and foam) was generally used as cooking oil. Compared to butter, olive oil consumption was very low. It is thought that olive oil and tail fat, which were thought to be worthless at that time, were mostly used to illuminate oil lamps (Samancı, 2008; Tez, 2015). Sesame oil is generally used in making desserts (Bilgin, 2008).
Fruits and vegetables from the gardens belonging to the Ottoman Palace Cuisine; butter, milk, yoghurt and ayran came from dairy farms. While milk was used in the production of desserts such as rice pudding, pudding and chicken breast; It has been used in making desserts such as cream, baklava and bread kadayıf. Çayır cheese and feta cheese were used to make cheese pies (Samancı, 2008).
Fish and other seafood, which have no place in the Central Asian Turkish Cuisine, were not liked very much in the early Ottoman period. However, due to the abundance and cheapness of fish in Istanbul, almost half of the people living in Istanbul consumed fish and other seafood, especially during times of famine and war (Tez, 2015). Contrary to the public, it is known that Fatih Sultan Mehmet consumed fish frequently and fondly. It is recorded that in 1471, dried fish, cod, eel, caviar and fish eggs were bought to the palace for Fatih. Despite this, fish consumption in the Ottoman Empire did not become widespread until the 19th century. Starting from the 19th century, with the influence of Western cuisine, especially lacquer, caviar, fish roe and kipper began to be consumed frequently in the Palace.
Fish roe and Azov caviar are served in Ramadan iftar. Although shellfish such as oysters and mussels were not consumed in the Palace Kitchen, these products were purchased to be served to foreign guests (Samancı, 2008).
Soup is very important in Turkish cuisine. For Turks, soup is a food consumed at every stage of their lives, from childhood to death. Soup, which is generally consumed only as an appetizer in Western cuisine, is a separate dish in Turkish cuisine (Arlı and Gümüş, 2007). In the 16th century, soup in the Ottoman Empire was usually made using chicken or beef broth and rice. In the Palace Cuisine, the oily juices of boiled ribs and meat stews were used in soups. Although rice entered the Ottoman Cuisine later, it was very popular. As in the Ottoman Palace Kitchen, rice soup was cooked every day in the soup kitchens where mass meals were produced and distributed to the needy.
Table 3. Comparison of Central Asian Turkish Cuisine and Modern Turkish Cuisine
|
Food & Beverage Type
|
|
Food and drinks
|
|
Meat and meat products
|
|
Mutton and pastrami ( Yerasimos , 2014; Thesis, 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
Fish, dried fish, cod, eel, caviar, Azov caviar, fish roe, lakerda, kipper, mussel and oyster (Samancı, 2008).
Lamb, lamb liver, beef, veal, sirloin, veal thigh, veal cutlet, chicken, chicken, turkey, goose, duck, peacock, partridge and pigeon (Samancı, 2008; Yerasimos ) , 2014; Thesis, 2015).
|
|
|
|
Lamb kebab, tandoori kebab and fried chicken (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
|
|
Roast beef (Samancı, 2008).
|
|
Milk and milk products
|
|
Milk, yogurt, ayran, cream and tarhana (Samancı, 2008).
Dried yoghurt (Kurt), butter, cream, fresh curd cheese, coarse curd cheese, fresh string cheese, fresh meadow cheese, Mudurnu cheese, Shumen cheese, Karaman cheese, Sofia cheese, Esme cheese, Midilli cheese, curd cheese, pickled cheese ( white cheese), Lemni Tulum cheese, Izmit Tulum cheese, Rumeli Tulum cheese, Fresh Kashkaval cheese and Balkan Kaskaval cheese (Ünsal, 2003).
|
|
Grains and Legumes
|
|
Wheat, barley, red millet, rice, bulgur and couscous (Tez, 2015). Egypt (Samancı, 2008).
Rice pilaf ( Yerasimos , 2014; Thesis, 2015; Akın et al., 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
|
|
|
|
Pasta (Samancı, 2008).
|
|
|
|
Noodle and cheese pie (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
Vegetable food
|
|
Pilaki, shake and moussaka (Samancı, 2008).
Artichoke stew, stuffed leaves, stuffed eggplant, stuffed apples with meat and stuffed eggs (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
Breads
|
|
White (wheat flour) bread, barley bread and red millet bread (Thesis, 2015).
Nan -ı saint, nan -ı hass medium (medium quality hash bread), nan -ı adi (mediocre bread), fodula (flat white bread), firancala (long good white bread), phyllo bread and loaf of bread (Samancı, 2008) ).
|
|
soups
|
|
Seasoned soup (Akın et al., 2015).
Rice soup ( Yerasimos , 2014; Tez, 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
Priest's stew (Samancı, 2008; Yerasimos , 2014; Thesis, 2015).
|
|
|
|
Wheat soup, bulgur soup, tarhana soup, chickpea soup, lentil soup, tripe soup, and head trotter soup ( Yerasimos , 2014).
|
|
|
|
Oyster soup (Samancı, 2008).
|
|
oils
|
|
Clarified butter, butter, olive oil and lard (Samancı, 2008; Thesis, 2015).
|
|
|
|
Sesame oil (Bilgin, 2008).
|
|
Desserts
|
|
Jam, ( Yerasimos , 2014; Thesis, 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016). Molasses, must, pulp, molasses sausage with walnuts, meatballs (molasses Turkish delight), pelver (a kind of marmalade), chicken breast and wondibi (Tez, 2015).
Güllaç, kadayif, baklava, lalanga ashura, halva and lokma ( Yerasimos , 2014).
|
|
|
|
Rice Pudding (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
|
|
Zülbaye halva, paluze, jelly and pudding (Bilgin, 2008).
|
|
|
|
Bread kadayıf and pie (Samancı, 2008).
|
|
Soft drinks
|
|
Syrup, honey sherbet, grape sherbet, rose sherbet, rose water and fruit compotes ( Yerasimos , 2014; Tez, 2015; Erdogan Tool, 2016).
Apricot compote (Akın et al., 2015).
Cinnamon sherbet, pomegranate sherbet and vermicelli (Sarıoğlan and Cevizkaya , 2016).
|
|
|
|
Vinegar (Thesis, 2015).
|
|
Alcoholic beverages
|
|
Wine (Thesis, 2015).
|
|
Fruits and vegetables
|
|
Grapes and raisins (Thesis, 2015). Date ( Yerasimos , 2014).
Okra, tomatoes, beans, potatoes, fresh peppers, local mackerel, squash and pumpkin (Samancı, 2008).
|
|
|
|
Vegetable pickles (Bilgin, 2008; Samancı, 2008; Erdoğan Araci, 2016).
|
|
Spices
|
|
Fülfül (black pepper), amber, musk, red pepper, vanilla and allspice (Samancı, 2008).
|
|
|
|
Cumin, saffron, mustard, coriander and cinnamon (Akın et al., 2015).
|
|
herbs
|
|
Mint, parsley, basil and basil (Akın et al., 2015).
|
In addition to rice, wheat and bulgur were also used in soup making, although their consumption decreased after the 15th century. Since the Ottomans liked the sour taste, soups were generally consumed by adding verjuice, lemon, vinegar or plum juice. Many soups such as tarhana, bulgur, rice, chickpeas, lentils, tripe and head trotter that were consumed in the Ottoman cuisine are also consumed in a similar way today (Yerasimos, 2014).
Black pepper, which grows in the tropics of Southeast Asia and is also referred to as "fulful" in the sources, was the most used spice in the Ottoman Palace Cuisine, although it was expensive. Black pepper was added to most meat dishes, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries (Yerasimos, 2014). Along with black pepper, cumin, saffron, mustard, coriander and cinnamon were also used a lot in the Ottoman Empire. Mint, parsley, basil and basil were used mostly from fresh herbs (Akın et al., 2015). The most expensive spices of the period consisted of amber, a fragrant substance formed in the intestines of a puffer whale and excreted with its feces, and musk extracted from a cloth under the skin of the abdomen of a type of male deer living in mountainous regions.
White amber, which is the light color of amber, was used in the production of halva, sherbet and especially aphrodisiac pastes made in the Palace Cuisine. Valuable prayer beads, spoons and bowls were made from dark amber known as amber. Musk has been used in special dishes and desserts due to its pleasant smell (Yerasimos, 2014). Spices such as red pepper, vanilla and allspice originating in America have been used in the Ottoman Palace Cuisine since the 19th century (Samancı, 2008).
At the end of Ottoman feasts in the 17th century, before coffee, guests were served a pleasant ab (hosaf), which means pleasant water and is usually made of dried fruits. Hosaf was placed in the middle of the food tray in the bowl and everyone drank from the same bowl with ivory or boxwood spoons specially made for feasts. In addition to compote, various sherbets were also made from fruits.
The most popular sherbets of the Palace Cuisine were sherbets made by using fragrant flowers such as rose, lotus, violet, lily and spices such as musk and amber. Honey and grapes are used in sherbets made for more modest tables (Yerasimos, 2014). In Ottoman tables, cinnamon was usually drunk in winter, and in summer, verjuice and honey sherbets. Since there was not much coffee and tea in the Ottoman Empire, sherbet was generally served as a beverage to the guests, and offering pomegranate sherbet to the guests was accepted as a sign of politeness (Sarıoğlan & Cevizkaya, 2016).
In the light of the data obtained as a result of the literature research, some foods consumed in the Ottoman Cuisine are summarized in Table 3.
Table 4. Some Foods Consumed in Ottoman Cuisine
|
|
Similar or same foods
|
Whole or partially forgotten foods
|
|
|
Mutton (Aksoy, 1998; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Sausage, pastrami, noodles, trotter soup and umaç ( ogmaç , omaç ) soup * (Ögel, 1991; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Roasted meat and offal (Baysal, 2002; Erdoğan Tool, 2016). Yogurt, buttermilk, butter and cottage cheese (Ciğerim, 2001; Güler, 2010).
Tarhana (Document, 2016).
Dry * (Yılmaz, 2002; Güler, 2010).
Tarhana soup, yogurt soup, flour soup and lentil soup (Güler, 2010).
Barley bread * and millet bread * and loaf, flatbread and phyllo bread made from wheat flour (Eröz, 1977; Baysal, 1993b; Bedirhan, 2009; Güler, 2010; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Chopped (beaten), bulgur and keskek * (Eröz, 1977; Bedirhan, 2009; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
Ravioli ( Algar , 1991; Güldemir, 2014; Belge, 2016).
Boza ( Argilli , 2005; Guler, 2010).
Wine, watermelon, grapes, peas and broad beans (Öcal, 1985; Talas, 2005).
|
• Mare's milk (Ciğerim, 2001; Güler, 2010). Kumis ** (Baysal, 1993a ; Güler, 2010).
• Kefir ** (Ertaş and Gezmen-Montenegro, 2013).
• Horse meat (Aksoy, 1998; Kılıç and
Albayrak, 2012).
• Tarasun (Gökalp, 1976; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
• Medus and camum (Bedirhan, 2009;
Guler, 2010; Kılıç and Albayrak, 2012).
• begni ( Kafesoğlu , 1993; Talas,
2005).
• io ( Kafesoglu , 1992; Kilic and
Albayrak, 2012).
|
In the last period of the Ottoman Empire, new European tastes started to appear in the Istanbul Cuisine besides the traditional flavors from the past. In this period, delicacies such as pie, roast beef, iced onion garnish, pasta, cream, oyster soup, pate and tarator were consumed, as well as flavors such as baklava, kebab, eggplant shake, rice, tarhana and chicken breast (Samancı, 2008).
The more magnificent the dishes of the Ottoman Palace Cuisine were, the simpler the meal arrangement was, except for festivities and banquets. Meals were eaten at tables close to the ground even in the Palace until the Tanzimat Period. II. After the reign of Mahmud (1808-1839), the habit of sitting on a chair and using cutlery at the table began (Yerasimos, 2014). After this period in the Ottoman Palace Cuisine, the influence of the French Cuisine, which was the ruler of the gastronomy world in the West, began to increase. Dishes from the French Cuisine were prepared and served to the guests hosted in the palace. At the end of this process, some authorities stated that the Ottoman Palace Cuisine should be divided into two as “New Ottoman Cuisine” and “Classical Ottoman Cuisine” (Hatipoğlu and Batman, 2014).
T increase and Result
Central Asia, which is considered to be the homeland of the Turks, has a harsh climate and unproductive soils. The ancient Turks adopted a nomadic lifestyle in order to better graze their animals in this region, which is not very suitable for agriculture. The kitchens of the Old Turks, who were not very interested in agriculture, were mainly based on animal food. Meat and milk were the most important food sources. Many foods such as sausage, pastrami, yogurt and tarhana have been transferred to today's cuisine from that period. In addition to all these, there are some foods that are completely or partially forgotten in the modern Turkish cuisine, although they are consumed in the Central Asian Turkish Cuisine (Table 4).
While it is consumed in some regions of Turkey, its awareness is low in some regions. In recent years, kumiss and kefir consumption tends to increase.
Two of the greatest states established by the Turks, who went to many new places through migrations from Central Asia, were the Great Seljuk State and the Anatolian Seljuk State, which were the continuation of each other. These states were established in regions with abundant agricultural diversity such as Mesopotamia and Anatolia and interacted with important civilizations such as Iran, Arab-Islam and Byzantium. In addition, the Seljuks adopted the religion of Islam and partly abandoned the nomadic life and became more interested in agriculture.
As a result of all these, although some foods in the Central Asian Turkish Cuisine cannot find a place in the Seljuk Cuisine, the traditional Turkish Cuisine has been enriched. Compared to the Central Asian Turkish Cuisine, the Seljuk Cuisine had a greater influence on the modern Turkish Cuisine. Especially today's Konya Cuisine includes many dishes from Seljuk Cuisine. However, despite all this, there are also foods that are included in the Seljuk Cuisine but forgotten in the modern Turkish Cuisine (Table 5).
Table 5. Comparison of Seljuk Cuisine and Modern Turkish Cuisine
|
|
Similar or same foods
|
Whole or partially forgotten foods
|
|
|
Red meat (sheep, goat, lamb, horse and game), white meat (poultry and fish), offal (liver, heart, kidney, head, tripe and intestines) and biryan (buryan) kebab * (Oral, 2008; Şahin, 2008; Baysal, 2012; Közleme, 2012; Kızıldemir et al., 2014; Akın et al., 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
Tirit * , stew, soup, kebab, borani * , tutç soup * , molasses, honey, sherbet, halva, kadaif, apple, plum, grape, quince, flour halva, almond halva * , paluze * and zerde * (Akın et al. , 2015).
Barley bread * , oat bread * and rye bread * and loaf, flatbread and phyllo breads made from wheat flour (Oral,
2008; Şahin, 2008; Közleme, 2012;
Kizildemir et al., 2014; Erdogan Tool, 2016). Sebit bread * , katmer, boza, soup with yoghurt, keskek * (helise), yarma (tattoo), toyga vaccine soup * , bulgur and rice (Kashgarlı Mahmut,
1989; Akin et al., 2015).
Wheat soup (Oral, 2008).
Milk (sheep, goat and cow), yoghurt, ayran, butter, kurut * , tarhana, cottage cheese and ayran soup (Arıhan, 2012).
Eggplant, spinach, radish, turnip, carrot, broad bean, lentil, chickpea, bean, kiwi * , fodder * and watermelon * herbs (Erdoğan, 2010;
Arihan, 2012; Baysal, 2012; Akin et al., 2015).
Wine and vinegar (Genç, 2008; Akın et al., 2015).
|
• Horse meat, bee girde bread and chukmin bread (Oral, 2008; Şahin, 2008; Baysal, 2012; Közleme, 2012; Akın et al., 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
• Mare's milk, kefir ** and kumiss ** (Arıhan, 2012).
|
*While it is consumed in some regions of Turkey, its awareness is low in some regions. **Consumption of kumiss and kefir tends to increase in recent years.
Turkish Cuisine lived its brightest times during the Ottoman Empire. The fact that the Ottoman Empire ruled over a wide geography, its multicultural structure and the centuries-old Turkish culinary tradition made the Ottoman Cuisine the best cuisine of its time.
Especially in the Ottoman Palace, dishes with a variety and taste that are not available in any world cuisine today were consumed. Although a significant amount of these dishes are still made in modern Turkish cuisine, some dishes have been forgotten (Table 6.).
*While it is consumed in some regions of Turkey, its awareness is low in some regions. ** It is known and consumed only by Bulgarian immigrant Turks. *** In modern Turkish cuisine, pastes are usually symbolically located.
Turkish cuisine, which is shown as one of the top 3 cuisines of the world by many food authorities, does not see the value it deserves in the world. One of the biggest reasons for this is that the promotion of the Turkish Cuisine, which is very rich, is made only through a few specific dishes. Among the sources that modern Turkish cuisine is fed, the most important ones are; It consists of Central Asian Turkish Cuisine, Seljuk Cuisine and Ottoman Cuisine.
Table 6. Comparison of Ottoman Cuisine and Modern Turkish Cuisine Completely or partially forgotten foods
|
|
Similar or same foods
|
Whole or partially forgotten foods
|
|
|
Butter, cream, curd cheese, pickled cheese (white cheese), string cheese * , teleme cheese * , Izmit tulum cheese * and kurut * (Ünsal, 2003).
Mutton, pastrami, rice soup, rice pilaf, syrup, honey sherbet, rose water and fruit compotes ( Yerasimos , 2014; Tez, 2015; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
Jam, sherbet and pickles (Bilgin, 2008; Samancı, 2008; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
Artichoke stew * , seasoned soup, lamb kebab, tandoori kebab * , fried chicken, stuffed eggplant, noodle, cheese pie, baklava, apricot compote, rice pudding, asurea, cumin, saffron * , coriander, cinnamon, mint, parsley, basil and basil (Akın et al., 2015).
King's stew * , lamb, veal, veal thigh , veal chop, beef, sirloin, chicken, chicken, goose * , duck * and partridge * (Samancı, 2008; Yerasimos , 2014; Tez, 2015).
Fish meat, mutton and lamb liver stew, eggplant shake * , eggplant moussaka, okra, tomatoes, beans, potatoes, fresh pepper, corn, locusts*, pumpkin, tomato paste, phyllo bread, wholemeal loaf of bread, kadayıf, cheese pastry pasta, red pepper, vanilla and allspice (Samancı, 2008).
Grapes, raisins, molasses, must * , fruit pulp * , walnut and molasses sausage * , meatballs * (molasses Turkish delight), wine, wheat bread and barley bread * , rice, bulgur, couscous, chicken breast, cauliflower and vinegar (Tez, 2015) .
Head trotter soup, tripe soup, chickpea, lentil soup, tarhana soup, black pepper, lalanga * , dates, gullaç, kadayif, asurea, halva and bite ( Yerasimos , 2014). Custard (Bilgin, 2008).
Olive oil, lard and clarified butter* (Samancı, 2008; Thesis, 2015).
|
• Meadow cheese, Mudurnu cheese, Shumen cheese ** , Sofia cheese, Esme cheese, Lesbos cheese, Lemni Tulum cheese, Rumeli Tulum cheese, Fresh Kashkaval cheese and Balkan Kaskaval cheese (Ünsal, 2003).
• Stuffed apples with meat and stuffed eggs (Akın et al., 2015).
• peacock meat and pigeon meat
(Samancı, 2008; Yerasimos , 2014; Thesis, 2015).
• Pelver (molasses marmalade ) (Thesis,
2015).
• Pastes *** (Bilgin, 2008; Samancı, 2008; Erdoğan Tool, 2016).
• Zülbaye halva and sesame oil (Bilgin, 2008).
• Amber and musk ( Yerasimos , 2014).
|
Turkish Cuisine from Tent to Palace
When these historical processes of Turkish Cuisine are examined, it is seen that some food and culinary practices are forgotten. It is thought that with the revival of the forgotten food culture, the Turkish Cuisine tradition will be better transferred to the next generations and the awareness of Turkish Cuisine will be increased in the world and contribute to Turkish tourism.
Source
Akın, G., Özkoçak, V. and Gültekin, T. (2015). Development of Traditional Anatolian Culinary Culture from Past to Present. Ankara University Faculty of Language, History and Geography Journal of Anthropology, Issue 30, 33-52.
Akpinar, T. (1999). History of Religion and Law of Turks, Istanbul.
Aksoy, M. (1998). Horse Culture and Kumys in Turks. Turkish World History Journal, p. 142, Istanbul, pp.40-41. Algar, A. (1991). Classical Turkish Cooking. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Argilli, E. (2005). 400 Recipes Worthy of Your Mouth From Elif's Kitchen. Omega Publications, Istanbul.
Arihan, S. (2012). Nutrition in Antiquity, Nutrition Anthropology-I. Hatipoğlu Publications, 160, Nutrition and Dietetics Series: 03, pp.45-78, Ankara.
Arli, M. Gumus, H. (2007). Soups in Turkish Culinary Culture. ICANAS, International Congress of Asian and North African Studies. 10-15 September, Ankara, 143-158.
Aydoğdu, A. and Mızrak, M. (2017). Historical Association of Azerbaijan and Turkey Culinary Culture and Determination of Current Situation. International Journal of Turkish World Tourism Studies, Spring-2017 Vol: 2 No: 1, 15-25.
Barthold, V.V. (2011). Central Asian Turkish History -Courses-, Trans. Huseyin Dag, Istanbul.
Baykara, T. (2001). Turkish History Perspectives (1st ed.). Ankara, Atatürk Cultural Center Presidency Publications.
Baysal, A. (1993a). Our Nutrition Culture. Ministry of Culture Publications: 1230, Ankara.
Baysal, A. (1993b). Changes in Turkish Food Culture, Changes in Nutrition and Health. Research on Turkish Culinary Culture, Turkish Folk Culture Research and Promotion Foundation Publication No:3, 12-20.
Baysal, A. (2002). Our Nutrition Culture. Ankara, Ministry of Culture.
Baysal, A. (2012). Turkish Cuisine, Characteristics, Interactions, Nutrition Anthropology-I. Hatipoğlu Publications:160, Nutrition and Dietetics Series:03, pp.123-150, Ankara.
Bedirhan, Y. (2009). Pre-Islamic Turkish History and Culture, Konya.
Document, M. (2016), Food Culture Throughout History, 14th Edition, Istanbul, İletişim Publications.
Bilgin, A. (2008). Classical Period Ottoman Palace Cuisine, Turkish Cuisine Ed: Arif Bilgin and Özge Samancı. Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism Publications, Ankara.
My liver, N. (2001). Development and Interaction of Western and Turkish Cuisine and a Look at the Place of Turkish Cuisine in Food and Beverage Services, Studies on Turkish Cuisine Culture. Turkish Folk Culture Research and Promotion Foundation Publications, Publication No: 28, 49-61.
Demir, A. (2008). Ottoman Recipes Adapted to Today Soup: Tarhana Soup. Turkish Cuisine, Ed: A. Bilgin and Ö. haymaker. Ankara, Ministry of Culture and Tourism Publications.
Duzgun, E. and Durlu Ozkaya, F. (2015). Culinary Culture from Mesopotamia to the Present. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 3/1, 41-47.
Erdogan Araci, U. (2016). Turkish Cuisine, Gastronomy and Tourism, Ed: Hülya Kurgun and Demet Bağıran Özşeker. Ankara, Detay Publishing.
Erdogan, E. (2010). Turkish Seljuk Cuisine, Ankara University, Institute of Social Sciences, History, USA, Master Thesis, Ankara.
Eroz, M. (1977). Turkish Cultural Studies, Istanbul.
Eroz, M. (1977). Turkish Culture Studies, Kutluğ Yay., Istanbul.
Ertaş, Y. and Gezmen-Montenegro, M. (2013). The Place of Turkish Culinary Culture in Healthy Nutrition. Gümüşhane University Journal of Health Sciences / Gümüşhane University Journal of Health Sciences: 2(1).
Faraqhi, S. (2000). Ottoman Culture and Everyday Life. Translated by: Elif Kılıç. History Foundation, 2nd Edition, Istanbul.
Young, R. (2008). XI. Century Turkish Cuisine, Cookbook, History-Folklore-Literature, Ed: Sabri Koz. Istanbul, Bookstore Publications, Volume I, p. 4.
Gokalp, Z. (1976). History of Turkish Civilization, Istanbul.
Guldemir, O. (2014). The Change of Dishes in Turkish Cuisine from Central Asia to the Republican Period: An Evaluation on Written Sources. VII. Graduate Tourism Students Research Congress: 346-358, 04-05, Kuşadası, Aydın.
Guler, S. (2010). Turkish cuisine culture and eating and drinking habits. Dumlupınar University Journal of Social Sciences, 26: 24-30.
Gursoy, D. (1995). Evolution of Food and Catering, Kurtiş Printing, Istanbul.
Halıcı, N. (1997). White Colors in Anatolian Holidays. Research on Turkish Culinary Culture, Turkish Folk Culture Research and Promotion Foundation Publications, Publication No: 20, p. 65-67.
Hatipoğlu, A. and Batman, O. (2014). Contemporary Turkish Gastronomic Elements of Ottoman Palace Cuisine
Comparison with Cuisine. Journal of Travel and Hotel Management/Journal of Travel and Hospitality Management, 11 (2), 62-74.
Kafesoglu, I. (1992). Culture and Organization. Turkish World Handbook, C. I, Ankara.
Kafesoglu, I. (1993). Turkish National Culture, Istanbul.
Kasgarli, M. (1989). Divan-u Lügati-t Türk, Translated by Besim Atalay, Turkish Historical Society Publication, Ankara. Karakas, R. (2013). Baby's Firsts in Diyarbakir: Hedik, Shackle Cutting Ceremonies and Folk Medicine Practices for Children. Black Sea, Winter, Year: 4, 2012, Issue: 16: 74-87.
Kartari, A. (1986). A Comparative Analysis of the Culinary Cultures of the Azeri and Euphrates Basins. Belleten, Turkish Folklore Publications, Istanbul.
Kılıç, S. and Albayrak, A. (2012). Food and Drinks in Turks Before Islam. Turkish Studies - International Periodical For The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, Vol. 7/2 Spring, 707-716.
Kizildemir, O. Öztürk, E. Sarıışık, M. (2014). Changes in the Historical Development of Turkish Culinary Culture. Journal of AIBU Social Sciences Institute, 2014, Vol:14, Year:14, Issue:3, 14: 191-210.
Közleme, O. (2012). Turkish Culinary Culture and Religion. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Istanbul: Istanbul University, Institute of Social Sciences.
Oral, MZ (2008). Seljuk Period Dishes and Breads,. Cookbook I, Ed: M. Sabri Koz. Istanbul, Bookstore Publications, Volume I, pp.18-34.
Ocal, S. (1985). Food in Ancient Turks. Turkish World Studies Fındıkoğlu Gift, Issue:35, İstanbul.
Ogel, B. (1988). Turkish Cultural History Before Islam, Ankara.
Ogel, B. (1991). Introduction to the History of Turkish Culture C. IV, Ankara.
Özdogan, Y. and Işık, N. (2008). Sherbet in Traditional Turkish Cuisine. 38. ICANAS International Congress of Asian and North African Studies, Proceedings, Volume I 1059-1077, Ankara.
Roden, C. (2007). Arabesque: a taste of Morocco, Turkey, and Lebanon. New York, Alfred A. Knopf.
Roux, JP (2007). History of Turks, Trans. Aykut Kazancıgil-Lale Arslan Özcan, Istanbul.
Samanci, O. (2008). Istanbul and Ottoman Palace Culinary Culture in the Last Period of the Empire, Turkish Cuisine, Ed: A. Bilgin,. HE. haymaker. Ankara, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2008, p.199-219.
Sarıoğlan, M. and Cevizkaya, G. (2016). Turkish Culinary Culture: Sherbets. Journal of Social Sciences Research, March, 2016, 237-250.
Şahin, H. (2008). Turkish Seljuk and Principalities Period Cuisine. Turkish Cuisine, Ankara, Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism Publications.
Şanlıer, N. Cömert M. and Özkaya, FD (2012). Young People's Perspective on Turkish Cuisine. National Folklore, 24(94), 152-161.
Talas, M. (2005). Turkish Nutrition Culture in the Historical Process and Turkish Food According to Mehmet Eröz. Selcuk University Journal of Turkic Studies (1)18, 273-283.
Thesis, Z. (2015). The History of Taste. Istanbul, Hayykitap.
Tezcan, M. (1997). Religious Effects on Food Culture. Research on Turkish Culinary Culture: Turkish Folk Culture Research and Promotion Foundation Publications Publication No: 20, 139-146.
Toygar, K. (2001). Studies on Turkish Culinary Culture. General Information About Turkish Cuisine, Ankara, Publication No: 29, September, 13.
Flour, H. (2009). Evaluation of Traditional Turkish Cuisine in Terms of Tourism Diversification, (Specialization Thesis). Ministry of Culture and Tourism, General Directorate of Research and Education, Ankara.
Unsal, A. (2003). When Milk Sleeps-Turkey Cheeses. Yapı Kredi Publications, Istanbul, Turkey
Unsal, A. (2008). Ottoman kitchen,. Cookbook I, Ed: M. Sabri Koz. Istanbul, Bookstore Publications, Volume I, pp.128-158. Ünver Alçay, A. Yalçın, S. Bostan, K. and Dinçel, E. (2015). Dried Foods from Central Asia to Anatolia. ABMYO Journal, 40, 83-93.
Yerasimos, M. (2014). 500 Years of Ottoman Cuisine (13th Edition). Istanbul, Dimension Publishing Group.
Yilmaz, A. (2002). Our Workplace is Kitchen, Our Profession is Cooking, Our Art is Cooking, Istanbul.