Turkism and Turanism in the Ottoman Empire

The most important reason is Islam. The Islamic identity in the Ottomans developed with the forgetting of Turkishness.The fact that the Ottomans were a great empire also affected their historical consciousness, and they remained unfamiliar with concepts such as homeland and nation..

Turkism and Turanism in the Ottoman Empire

Aybars AKKOR

The Ottomans, who established a great state consisting of various nations for about 600 years, II. In the six years since the proclamation of the constitutional monarchy, it lost all its lands beyond Libya and Edirne. Especially the loss of Rumelia, where the most fertile lands were located, had a great impact on the Young Turks, and they began to concentrate their policies on Anatolia. After the loss of land, the majority of its population had passed to the Turks. Since 1911, the Committee of Union and Progress had translated its Ottoman program into Turkish. The Union and Progress government would adopt Turkism as the only solution instead of Ottomanism and Islamism, which were proposed to prevent the disintegration of the Empire.

After escaping abroad, Talat Pasha would explain this change with these words: “People often remember their poor relatives only when they are in the same situation.” one

Turkish national identity has appeared on the stage of history very late. It is only at the beginning of the 20th century that serious consideration of what the Turkish national identity is or should be.

Reasons for this delay: (according to Taner Akçam) 2

1- The most important reason is Islam. The Islamic identity in the Ottomans developed with the forgetting of Turkishness.

2- The fact that the Ottomans were a great empire also affected their historical consciousness, and they remained unfamiliar with concepts such as homeland and nation.

3- Since the main purpose of the ruling group of the Ottoman State was to protect the multinational state structure, they did not openly claim their national identity.

4- The main purpose was to save the disintegrating empire and to prevent its disintegration. Therefore, Turkism was the worst of the existing choices. Because it excluded both Christians and non-Turkish Muslims.

5- Another important reason for the delay is the late arrival of racist thoughts, which are effective in the emergence of national identity.

The following words of Dr Rıza Nur (1879 – 1942) can be cited as one of the reasons for the delay:

“I die for the Turkish ideal, but I keep this ideal inside me like a secret bowl and I don't tell anyone about it. I know that if I do so, my action will legitimize the secret ideas of others, namely separatist movements. And that will mean the disintegration of the state, its extinction.” 3

AN EXAMPLE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRANSITION TO TURKISH

François Georgeon, who made research on Turkish nationalism, used Şevket Süreyya Aydemir's (1897- 1976) states that the book «The Man Searching for Water» should be reviewed. Aydemir, in the first years of his life

It is "Ottoman". He becomes a "Turkist" in various stages. 4

First stage: By reading the magazine "Türk Yurdu" before the Balkan Wars, he discovers that there is a great Turkish nation and that the history of this nation began long before the Ottoman Empire.

Second stage: After the Balkan Wars, he fell into the "Panturkist" movement, which seemed to be a solution to the defeats and loss of territory.

While searching for Turan, Şevket Süreyya discovers "that unknown Anatolia". Like most Balkan Turks, he has no idea about Anatolia. While doing his military service, he is asked to give lessons to the soldiers, and he sees that the soldiers are unaware of what Turkishness is. For the soldiers in his regiment, Turkish is equated with the words Kızılbaş, that is, Alevi. For this reason, he states that although they want to establish Turan, the first thing to do is to establish Turkey before Turan.

Based on Şevket Süreyya Aydemir's article, Georgeon states that Turkish Nationalism consists of shared pains and shared memories. These pains and memories are more unifying than joy, revealing duties, duties and responsibilities, stimulating the consciousness of "service" that mobilized the generations living during the collapse of the empire.

FACTORS PREPARING TURKISH NATIONALISM

1- THE EFFECT OF WARS

The first wave of immigration to the Ottoman Empire came from the Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 1783, followed by the Volga-Ural region. This wave of immigration from Russia, which continued at intervals, gained momentum after 1878. Meanwhile, Turkish intellectuals in Russia and those influenced by the nationalist movements in Russia emigrated.

Especially during these migrations, there were intellectuals who were oppressed under Russian pressure and defended Turkish nationalism against this pressure. When it comes to the Ottoman Empire, they wrote articles and gave conferences, thinking that the salvation of the state was also in Turkish nationalism.

2- CHANGE OF COMMERCIAL RELATIONS

The fact that European states preferred to do business with Ottoman minorities in the trade between Europe and the Ottoman Empire accelerated the development of Turkish nationalism. The fact that the Ottoman Turks could not benefit from this flourishing trade as much as the minorities caused them to harbor hostility towards the commercial success of the minorities. According to a study conducted in 1914, Greeks controlled 50% of the capital investments, Armenians 20%, Ottoman Turks 15%, Foreign Nations 10%, and Jews 2%. This caused the Turks to support the nationalist movement and to direct the ruling Union and Progress Government on this issue.

3- THE EFFECT OF THE REFORMS

The Tanzimat Edict of 1839, and especially the Reform Edict of 1856, caused many social pains and caused reactions especially among Muslim Turks to share the superior rights that were considered natural with non-Muslims. There were occasional clashes.

4- HISTORY VIEWS

Traditional Ottoman history did not mention the history of the Turks before the Ottomans, but instead examined the development of the Kayı Tribe, a branch of the Oghuz Turks. In the mid-19th century, when Ahmet Cevdet Pasha put forward the idea that Arabs and Turks were two great nations that ruled the Islamic World, the pre-Islamic history of the Turks began to be researched. Military Schools Commander Süleyman Hüsnü Pasha wrote a Turkish history book based on different sources for the first time in order to introduce the Turks. In addition, with the translation of books written by foreign authors and telling the history of Turks, curiosity and interest in Turks and their origins increased, especially among the young and intelligent people.

5- SEARCH OF THE TURKISH LANGUAGE, BOOKS ABOUT TURKS

The work titled “Kitab-ı İlmü'n-Nafi” written by British Sir Davids Lomley, which talks about Turkish grammar, various Turkish dialects and different areas of Turkish civilization, was presented to Sultan Mahmud in 1830. 5 Ahmet Vefik Pasha translated Secere-i Türki into Istanbul Turkish at the end of the 19th century and compiled a Turkish dictionary that he named Polish-i Osmani.

Süleyman Pasha wrote a book called Sarf-ı Türki, which determined the general rules of Turkish grammar. Leon Cahun's 1896 "Introduction to Asian History" book was translated into Turkish. In his book, Cahun was talking about a Turan race, the pioneers of European civilization. Ismail Gaspıralı, who published the Tercüman newspaper published in Crimea, advocated unity in language, thought and action among Turkish communities.

Thus, he developed the idea of unity among all Turkic communities in Russia under the leadership of Ottoman Turkey. Hüseyinzade Ali Bey from Baku started to teach the principles of Turkism and Turanism in the Ottoman Military Medical School and advocated the unification of the Turks under the same flag.

6- TURKISH SPEAKING REQUIREMENT

The Constitution, proclaimed in 1876, stipulated for the first time in Ottoman history that the official language of the state was Turkish, and that the deputies and officials should speak and write in Turkish. In 1911, the Committee of Union and Progress followed an education policy requiring the use of the Turkish language in all schools in the Empire in order to exclude all non-Turkish communities from the nation and instill patriotism among Turks.

7- SETTLEMENT OF HOMELAND UNDERSTANDING

Namık Kemal created the idea of "homeland" and embodied the feeling of patriotism in his plays. He promoted the idea of dying for the sake of the country in the first Turkish theatrical play, "Vatan or Silistra", and named his newspaper "Hürriyet". In his articles, Namık Kemal criticizes that only Muslims do military service and that tens of thousands of soldiers die every year, he criticizes the complete disappearance of our national industry and our total dependence on foreigners with the rights granted to foreigners.

He argued that the Trade Agreement of 1838 should be cancelled. Namık Kemal put forward the slogan "Muslim company, Muslim bank, Muslim factory and Muslim trader". Although Namık Kemal's thoughts were not widely spread among the people, he reached the young intellectuals whose numbers were increasing in schools such as Harbiye, Medicine, and Mülkiye. 6

8- GOLTZ PASHA'S INFLUENCE ON THE SOLDIERS

In 1883, II. The German von der Goltz Pasha, who was appointed by Abdulhamid for the improvement of the Military Academy, stayed in Istanbul for 15 years and defined the Ottoman Empire as the "Turkish and Arab Empire". He suggested that the capital be moved to an Anatolian city such as Konya or Kayseri, and showed Anatolia as homeland to the young soldiers he trained. The idea of soldier nation in his works strengthened the Unionists' desire for Turkishness. The Unionists, most of whom were educated in military schools, benefited from Goltz Pasha's thoughts and wrote works in line with his teachings. 7

9- THE USE OF TURKISH IDENTITY AND ABDULLAH CEVDET (1869-1932)

In 1906, Abdullah Cevdet proposed the concepts of "Turkish" and "Turkishness" instead of the upper Ottoman identity. An intellectual who played an important role in Kurdish nationalist movements stated that he preferred the "Turkish" supra-identity, and even considered it appropriate to publish his articles with the signature of "A Kurdish-Turk". Abdullah Cevdet was influential with his articles on both the Union and Progress and the policies of the Republic. In his writings, he suggested wearing a cap instead of the fez, the use of turban and robe only by the clergy, closing the madrasas and dervish lodges, prohibiting the dedication of the saints, ending the activities of healers and magicians, and changing the entire legal system. 8

10- YUSUF AKCURA AND THREE STYLES-I POLITICS

Yusuf Akçura was born on the banks of the Volga in 1876, he was the brother-in-law of İsmail Gaspıralı, who would become famous in his Turkism studies. When he was 7 years old, he came to Istanbul with his mother, entered the Military Academy, was exiled to Tripoli with his friend Ferid Tek because he read harmful publications, fled to Paris from there, studied Political Sciences.

The development and maturation of Akçura on Turkism and finding its direction took place in Paris. He returned to the Crimea in 1902, then went to Kazan to establish relations with the Young Turks against Abdulhamid's tyranny. From here, he sends the article "Three Styles of Politics" to the "Turk" newspaper published in Egypt. When the Second Constitutional Monarchy was declared, he came to Istanbul and founded a society and magazine called the Turkish Association. He is among the founders of Türk Yurdu Magazine in 1911 and Türk Ocağı in 1912. When the Republic is proclaimed, he becomes a deputy and presides over the first Turkish History Congress. He died in 1935.

According to Yusuf Akçura, the most powerful thoughts on earth are the thoughts of religion and nationality. Saying "I am a Muslim and a Turk" in his work called Turkism, Akçura argues that Islamic civilization is not the property of Arabs, but a civilization formed with the participation of Turks themselves. He also argues that Turks played a major role in the formation of Russian culture. In terms of language, he argues that all Arabic and Persian words should be removed from the language and that original roots should be taken from all Turkish dialects, whether or not they were customary by Ottoman Turks. 9

THREE STYLES-I POLITICS

The main topics that Yusuf Akçura focuses on are:

• 1-Creating an Ottoman nation

• 2- Establishing a state structure based on Islamism

• 3- To create a Turkish nation based on race

Ottomanism:

He thinks that forming an Ottoman nation would be beneficial for the Ottoman Empire. It also states its drawbacks. He does not consider the protection of borders a sufficient goal for the state. It also predicts that Ottoman communities would not want to mingle with each other. The history of Ottoman rights is not a spiritual one, but a physical one. There was not and cannot be a common ideal to bind the same peoples now and in the future. But apart from these, neither Turks, nor Muslims, nor Turkish and non-Muslim peoples wanted to dissolve into an Ottoman nation. It was an empty dream to create an Ottoman nation without the will to live together.

Islamism:

It is the desire of Muslims in the world to form an Islamic union. Islamism would be developed by the Ottoman Turks, first in the Ottoman lands, and then spread among the Muslim nations in Asia and Africa. If the Islamic Union is formed as a drawback, the political and legal equality that the Tanzimat aimed to spread among the Ottoman communities will no longer be in question. Even hostilities would begin between Ottoman subjects. In fact, religious and sectarian incompatibilities may increase among Turks. In addition, other states with Muslim populations will try to prevent this. Another drawback was the danger that the Turks would dissolve into the Muslim Arabs, who would form the majority of the Empire.

Turkism:

The Turkish Union will first begin with the awareness and Turkification of the Turks in the Ottoman Empire, those who are more or less Turkified even though they are not Turks, and those who lack a national conscience. Then, a strong political nation will be formed by uniting the Turks who have spread in the Asian continent and Eastern Europe. The general trend seen in the history of the time is in the races. Religions are gradually losing their political importance and power due to being religions, freedom of conscience takes the place of religious unity in societies. Akçura admits that the necessary environment for national unity has not yet been prepared. The vast majority of Turks have forgotten their past.

He says that the development of Turkish consciousness, which will lead to Turkish unity, is possible with two areas and four stages. The first area is the Ottoman Empire. Racial ties among the Turks here will be strengthened, as will religious feelings. Then the Turkification of the Ottoman communities, which had been Turkified to a certain extent, will begin. Eventually, communities that are not affected by Turkishness and lack national consciousness will be Turkified. Turkification in the Ottoman field will be followed by raising awareness in the second field. This will be both political and cultural. In other words, the Turks who have spread in a large part of Asia and in the east of Europe will be united and conscious.

Conclusion: Akçura ends his article as follows: “Creating the Ottoman nation, although it is within the scope of some benefits, is out of action. The policy towards the Muslim League or the Turkish Union includes the same interests and drawbacks for the Ottoman Empire. It can be said that there is the same ease and difficulty in terms of action. In such a situation, which of the policies of Islam and Turkishness should be carried out?»

REACTIONS TO THREE STYLES-I POLITICS ALI KEMAL

He heavily criticized Yusuf Akçura's thoughts in the article entitled "Our Answer". In summary, Ali Kemal said: “It is not usual for us to distinguish a Turk from an Islam, Islam from a Turk, a Turk and Islam from an Ottoman. In our time, creating an Islamic state by uniting the Muslims of Asia, Africa and Europe is a dry delusion. With what power will the Turks, who cannot protect the Crimea, unite the Asian Turks? Moreover, there is not even a Turkism movement in our country.” Ali Kemal proposes the following as salvation: If the Turks rise as individuals inside and outside the country, if they gain power in terms of money, thought and science, and if they become wealthy, this Turkish state will rise to that extent.

FERID TEK

He does not believe that it is impossible to create an Ottoman nation. He does not consider it appropriate to consider the Islamic Union and the Turkish Union equal in terms of difficulty and ease. Islamic Union is not possible for today or tomorrow, whereas Turkish unity may be possible in the future if not for today. The most accurate, easiest and most useful Ottoman

policy, because this policy is the “guardian of our national existence”. Ahmet Ferit argues that assimilation, which Akçura argues as the most important achievement of Turkism, can also be realized under the name of Ottomanism. 10

11- ASSOCIATIONS FOUNDED A-TURKISH ASSOCIATION (1908-1912)

Yusuf Akçura settled in Istanbul in November 1908 and at the end of the same year he founded an organization called the Turkish Association in search of a new power for the nationalist movement. There were two famous Turkologists Necip Asım (Zaziksız) and Veled Çelebi (İzbudak) and other prominent intellectuals with nationalist tendencies in this association. 11 The aim of the association was to research the past and present works, deeds and situations of all tribes called Turks and to introduce the results to the whole world, and also to try to realize a reform in the Turkish language. The main task for the association was to try to awaken the long-forgotten Turkish identity among the Ottoman Turks. In addition, by forming a Turkish union, industrial and commercial benefits would be provided to the Ottoman Turks.

B-YOU PENS (1911-1912)

It was a movement that emerged in Thessaloniki at about the same time, apart from activities in Istanbul. It was the people of that day, not the long and ancient history of the Turkish nation, that Young Kalemler cared about. According to one of the founders, Ömer Seyfettin, a new language that the people could understand was necessary to save the Ottoman Empire. The directors of Genç Kalemler believed that just publishing a magazine was not enough to popularize the new language.

They formed a delegation through Ziya Gökalp, and Enver Pasha was the head of the delegation. This delegation translated many Western works, which they considered important, into the new language. They also envisioned it being taught in schools as the most effective way to spread the new language. The core of Genç Kalemler magazine consists of Ali Canip Method, Ömer Seyfettin and Ziya Gökalp. 12

C- TURKISH DORMITORY

Yusuf Akçura, who was not comfortable in the Turkish Association, initiated the establishment of the Turkish Association. Among its founders were Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Hüseyinzade Ali and a wealthy Tatar Mahmut Hüseyinov. One of the two aims of the society was to build a dormitory for the students, and the other aim was to publish a newspaper to serve the increase of the intelligence and wisdom levels of the Turks and their income and entrepreneurship. 13 Paul Risal published an article in the Mercure de France magazine in 1912: “The Turks are looking for a national spirit”.

Türk Yurdu Journal immediately translated this article into Turkish, and then similar articles began to be published. In his article, Risal stated that it is not possible for Muslim and non-Muslim elements to keep Ottomanism alive, and this expectation is wrong, and stated that Turkish nationalism, which is similar to French nationalism, will gain more power over time. 14 Türk Yurdu Mecmuası authors Ahmet Hikmet Bey, Mehmed Emin Bey, İsmail Bey Gasprinski, Ziya Bey (Gökalp), Bursalı Mehmed Tahir Bey, Ahmed Bey Agayef, Architect Kemaleddin Bey, Akçuraoğlu Yusuf Bey (who is also the director) and Köprülüzâde Mehmed Fuad Bey. consisted of.

D-ISLAM MECMUASI

The aim of the Islamic Journal, which began to be published in 1914, was not secularization, but the revival of Islam. The common feature of the directors of the journal was that they had modern education as well as traditional education, so they could examine Islam and its conditions in an informed way. They were full of sincere desires for reform in Islam, especially in the first issues. The CUP provided the financial resource to the Islamic journal. 15

E- TURKISH QUARRY

The Young Turk was the most influential nationalist organization in the Republican era. Military Medical School students took the lead in the establishment of the Turkish Hearth. Their wish was for all Turkish youth to gather in this club, to give them a sense of Turkishness, and then to awaken the people. On behalf of 231 medical students, Hüseyin Fikret and Remzi Osman had invited seven intellectuals to the meeting in July 1911. Together with Mehmet Emin, Ahmet Ferit, Yusuf Akçura, Mehmet Ali Tevfik, Emin Bülent, Fuat Sabit and Ahmet Ağaoğlu, they established an organization called Türk Ocağı. Turkish Hearth tried to create an awareness of history through public conferences. He organized seminars on Ottoman Naval History, History of Literature, History of Civilization and Religions. In addition, Russia attached great importance to relations with the Turks. 16

12- ZİYA GÖKALP (1876-1924)

Ziya Gökalp is one of the actors who played the most important role in shaping Turkish nationalism. Taha Parla defines herself as the official ideologue of the Committee of Union and Progress and the unofficial ideologue of the Kemalists. 17 According to Gökalp, the nation is the most developed of the social groups; society is based on social unity and solidarity: the highest form of solidarity is based on common language and culture, common knowledge and norms of sensitivity. The Turkish nation can rise by introducing itself to the nation and declaring its national responsibility. Turkism is to raise the Turkish nation. Gökalp describes his dream of social revolution as follows:

creating a new life by not liking it. New life should be aimed at “new economy”, “new family”, “new aesthetics”, “new philosophy”, “new morality”, “new law”, “new politics”. For the Ottomans, salvation is a "new life". Gökalp defines the “new life” as a national lifestyle, and this lifestyle will be called “Turkism” in time. In other words, Turkism means a social transformation, "social revolution" in his own words. 18 One of the main pillars of Gökalp Turkism is populism. It proposes replacing the class distinction of the professional communities that bind the members of the society to each other. He likens the society to a living organism and the professional societies to the vital organs of this organism. Another dimension of Turkism is nationalism. Every nation should be a state of its own.

Gokalp's three sayings:

1- There is no individual, there is a society. 2- There is no class, there is a profession.

3- There is no empire, there are national states. 19

Defending the elements of Turkification, Islamization and Contemporaryization, Gökalp argues that there is no incompatibility between them, on the contrary, they will complement each other. The elements to be taken from the West should be limited to the material culture field, that is, scientific and technological information. The spiritual essence of culture should not be polluted by the West. In this article, Gökalp states that the main victims of the Tanzimat and Ottomanism policies were the Turks. For this reason, he attacks Ottomanism and says that Ottomanism dreams of a "false nation", but the main thing is to create a "contemporary Islamic Turkishness".

In the letter he wrote to his daughters in exile in Malta on November 6, 1919, Gökalp said that we should take Europe as an example in terms of civilization, be like them in science, science and industry, and that we must know one of the European languages in order to get this civilization. But he adds that we must be Turkish as a whole, consisting of religious, moral, human feelings and language, while taking civilization from Europe. He says that we should be a European State, provided that we remain Turkish and Muslim. 21 Ziya Gökalp, in an article he wrote in 1917, advocates that the Turkish family should be monogamous and based on equality between men and women. 22

TRANSMISSION...

IN HUNGARY

Turan, a Persian word, is the name of a geographical area in northeastern Iran bordering the Aral Sea and Chinese Turkestan, roughly matching the former Soviet Turkestan. In the 1830s, the concept of Turan in the Ural-Altaic languages, which was formed as a result of the Hungarians researching their languages, began to have a political-ideological meaning in the 1890s. Hungarians, Finns, Estonians, non-Slavic Bulgarians, Turks, Tatars, Turkmens, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Bashkirs, even Japanese, Koreans, Mongols, Chinese, Siamese and Tibetans were among the peoples that the Hungarians included in the Turan ideal. 23

IN THE OTTOMANS

In an official Ottoman document mentioning diplomatic relations with Turkestan khans in the 1830s, Turan is mentioned as the land of Tatars, Uzbeks, Mongols, and Turkestan peoples. However, it was not used as the name of a common language family and ethnic bond with the Muslim Turks living in the Ottoman lands. German General Moltke, who was brought in in the middle of the 19th century to modernize the Ottoman army, said in the 1840s that the Empire should abandon its desperate struggle on European soil and head towards Central Asia, where millions of Turkish origins live, so that a large and powerful Turkish state could be established. 24

One of the young Ottomans, Ali Suavi's definition of Turks as both the founder of the Ottoman Empire and a race encompassing the peoples of Central Asia, Ahmet Vefik Pasha's theses that the Ottoman dialect derives from the same common root as the dialect of the Central Asian peoples, Ahmed Mithat's naming Central Asia as the homeland , Written by Necip Asım inspired by Leon Cahun's book about the «Turan» race

His work titled "Turkish History" increased the Turks' interest in their homeland, and negotiations with Hungarian Turanists began.

Ziya Gökalp defines Turan as the sum of all the countries where Turks live and Turkish is spoken in his book "Turkification, Islamization, Contemporary". 25

The ties that united all Turks, thanks to Turanism, eventually led Enver Pasha to the dream of creating a Turkish Empire after the First World War, stretching from the ashes of the Ottoman empire along the Silk Road from Edirne to China, with Samarkand as its capital. In 1919, all Muslims and Turks were called to secure the Ottoman Empire, and the propaganda to save Turkestan extended to Central Asia. Enver Pasha's departure to Central Asia in 1921 and his taking the title of Emir of Turkistan was the culmination of this movement. This movement was ended by Soviet Russia after Enver Pasha died in a conflict in 1922.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUNGARY AND TURKISH TOURANISTS

1- The Turanist movement that developed in Turkey never included Hungarians, Finns and other “Turanian peoples” in the Turan Union. But for the Hungarian Turanists, the Turanian Union included a population of 600 million, one-third of the world's population at that time.

2- The Turanist movement in Turkey proposes a comprehensive state-society model as well as the unity of the peoples. The Hungarians, on the other hand, were satisfied with the state-society model at that time, they thought of Turanism as a foreign policy tool for the Hungarian state.

3- The supremacy of the Turkish race is essential in Turkish Turanism, and neither Turanian nor Hungarian race is superior in Hungarian Turanism.

4- While Turkish Turanism says that non-Turkish elements should be removed from social and political life, or even expelled from the country, Hungarian Turanists advocate the assimilation of minorities. 26

CONCLUSION

Although Turkish Nationalism was the last nationalism to emerge in the Ottoman Empire, it was seen as the most important remedy to save the lands where the Turkish nation was in the majority. The biggest share in the victory of the War of Independence belongs to Turkish Nationalism. For this reason, although the delay of Turkism in the Ottoman Empire was criticized, its timing and spread was in favor of the Republic of Turkey.

1 Dündar Fuat, The Policy of the Committee of Union and Progress to Settlement Muslims (1913-1918), Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2011 (5th Edition), p. 30-36.

2 Akçam Taner, Some Theses on Turkish National Identity, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 4: Milliyetcilik, Istanbul, İletişim Yayınları, 2008 (3rd Edition), pp.53-62

3 Göçek Fatma Müge, The Formation of Turkish Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire: A Sociological Approach, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 4: Milliyetcilik, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2008 (3rd Edition), p.63-76

4 Georgeon François, Rereading The Man Who Seeks Water, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 4: Milliyetcilik, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2008 (3rd Edition), pp.23-36

5 Kösoğlu Nevzat, The Birth of Turkish Nationalism and Ziya Gökalp, İstanbul, Ötüken Publications, 2013, p.50

6 Avcıoğlu Doğan, Turkey's Order, Book One, İstanbul, Tekin Publishing House, 1979 (13. Edition), pp.233-239

7 Dündar Fuat, The Code of Modern Turkey, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2008, p.63-70

8 Avcıoğlu Doğan, Turkey's Order, Book One, İstanbul, Tekin Publishing House, 1979 (13. Edition), pp.241-242

9 Akçura Yusuf, Turkism, Historical Development of Turkism, Istanbul, Interest Culture and Art Publishing, 2012 (3rd Edition), p. 15-17

10 Dündar Fuat, The Code of Modern Turkey, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2008, p.73-75

11 Arai Masami, Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk Period, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 1: The Accumulation of the Tanzimat and the Constitutional Monarchy, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2011 (9th Edition), p.180- 181

12 Arai Masami, Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk Period, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 1: The Accumulation of the Tanzimat and the Constitutional Monarchy, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2011 (9th Edition), p.183- 185

13 Arai Masami, Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk Period, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 1: The Accumulation of the Tanzimat and the Constitutional Monarchy, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2011 (9th Edition), p.186- 191

14 Akın Rıdvan, The Disintegration Period of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkism Movement (1908-1918), Istanbul, Der Publications, 2002, p.41-44

15 Arai Masami, Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk Period, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 1: The Accumulation of the Tanzimat and the Constitutional Monarchy, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2011 (9th Edition), p.192- 194

16 Akın Rıdvan, The Disintegration Period of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkism Movement (1908-1918), Istanbul, Der Publications, 2002, p.54-55

17 Ünüvar Kenan, Ziya Gökalp, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 4: Milliyetcilik, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2008 (3rd Edition), p.30

18 Ünüvar Kenan, Ziya Gökalp, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 4: Milliyetcilik, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2008 (3rd Edition), p.30

19 Toprak Zafer, The Birth of Sociology in the Ottoman Empire, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 1: Tanzimat ve Constitutional Monarchy, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2011 (9th Edition), p.323- 326

20 Dündar Fuat, The Code of Modern Turkey, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2008, p.75-77

21 10-Ersal Aytekin, Nation State in Turkey, Istanbul, Ötüken Publications, 2012, p.275

22 Kösoğlu Nevzat, The Birth of Turkish Nationalism and Ziya Gökalp, İstanbul, Ötüken Publications, 2013, p.241

23 Özdoğan Günay Göksu, Turanism in the World and in Turkey, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 4: Nationalism, Istanbul, İletişim Publications, 2008 (3rd Edition), pp.388-405

24 Akın Rıdvan, The Disintegration Period of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkism Movement (1908-1918), Istanbul, Der Publications, 2002, p.7-8

25 Kösoğlu Nevzat, The Birth of Turkish Nationalism and Ziya Gökalp, İstanbul, Ötüken Publications, 2013, p.63

26 Önen Nazım, Two Different Ways to Turan: Hungarian and Turkish Turanism, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 4: Milliyetcilik, Istanbul, İletişim Yayınları, 2008 (3rd Edition), p. .406-408

REFERENCES

Akçam Taner, Some Theses on Turkish National Identity, in Bora Tanıl, Gültekingil Murat ed., Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Volume 4: Milliyetcilik, Istanbul, İletişim Yayınları, 2008 (3rd Edition), pp.53-62

Akçura Yusuf, Turkism, Historical Development of Turkism, Istanbul, Interest Culture and Art Publishing, 2012 (3rd Edition), p. 15-17

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