Today, it is seen that the countries that set out for this purpose are trying to promote their own cuisines. The aim of this study; The aim is to bring up the concept of gastrodiplomacy, one of the sub-branches of diplomacy, and its applications in the world and in Turkey...
A Study on Gastrodiplomacy Practices in the World and in Turkey
*Alper ÇEVİK a, Zeynep ASLAN b
Summary
Food is one of the most basic needs for the continuation of human life. However, today, it is seen that it is a necessity that is consumed only for survival, and it also emerges as an important power in the diplomacy of countries. Thus, kitchens; It helps countries to determine their policies and give direction. Gastrodiplomacy practices, which are included in the article named "food as ambassador" (kitchen as a representative), in which the public diplomacy campaign of Thailand to introduce the food and culinary art of Thailand to the world for the first time in 2002 is explained, is a diplomatic method that countries use in international relations through their cuisines.
Today, it is seen that the countries that set out for this purpose are trying to promote their own cuisines. The aim of this study; The aim is to bring up the concept of gastrodiplomacy, one of the sub-branches of diplomacy, and its applications in the world and in Turkey, and to emphasize the importance of its use as an international diplomacy method. The concept of gastrodiplomacy, its historical process, its applications in the world and in Turkey have been tried to be revealed by making a literature review from secondary data collection techniques. In the light of the findings, various suggestions were made to the sector and academia.
Summary
Food is one of the most basic needs for the continuation of human life. However, today, it is seen that it is a necessity that is consumed only for survival, and it also emerges as an important power in the diplomacy of countries. Thus, kitchens; It helps countries to determine their policies and give direction. Gastrodiplomacy practices, which are included in the article named "food as ambassador" (kitchen as a representative), in which the public diplomacy campaign of Thailand to introduce the food and culinary art of Thailand to the world for the first time in 2002 is explained, is a diplomatic method that countries use in international relations through their cuisines.
Today, it is seen that the countries that set out for this purpose are trying to promote their own cuisines. The aim of this study; The aim is to bring up the concept of gastrodiplomacy, one of the sub-branches of diplomacy, and its applications in the world and in Turkey, and to emphasize the importance of its use as an international diplomacy method. The concept of gastrodiplomacy, its historical process, its applications in the world and in Turkey have been tried to be revealed by making a literature review from secondary data collection techniques. In the light of the findings, various suggestions were made to the sector and academia.
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Food, which is indispensable for the continuity of human life, is at the forefront of the mandatory needs that must be met in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory (Aymankuy & Sarıoğlan, 2007, p. 8). However, it is noteworthy that over time, eating has become a cultural phenomenon rather than a biological act as more than food (Yıldız, Akbaba, Özel & Aydın, 2018). Thus, kitchens are not only considered as places where food is prepared and served, but also as places of foreign policy. Therefore, the food; It is noteworthy that it has been a means of intercultural interaction with different nations, as well as representing the traditions, cultures and history of nations since ancient times.
For example, it is claimed that the Greeks and Romans settled disputes by using food to negotiate disputes between each other, as well as offering each other copious amounts of wine to learn state secrets. As a result, it is seen that countries have started to use food as an important tool in their diplomatic relations throughout history. When language is not sufficient in international relations, it is striking that the cuisine of the countries is used as a soft power and communication tool.
For example, the United States may not have official relations with Cuba, but it is possible to see Cuban cuisine in many parts of the United States. Diplomatic relations between the United States of America and Vietnam seem to have been re-established after the increase in the number of Vietnamese restaurants in the United States. In addition, during the Silk Road, states strengthened their relations with distant countries by trading over food and spices (Forman & Sonenshine, 2014). Therefore, gastrodiplomacy can play an important role in achieving the interests of the country, and can attract the attention of other nations in the promotion of culture through cuisine and the evaluation of culture.
Gastrodiplomacy tries to promote that country by using the culinary culture of a country as a tool to change the perception of the society on the international stage. Although there are many ways to identify and visualize the identity of a country, culinary culture is a very effective tool in strengthening this identity. Governments use culinary culture as a kind of strategy developer in cultural diplomacy. This strategy aims to export traditional foods to the world in the form of national cuisine (Türker, 2018).
Gastrodiplomacy can be used by countries to increase interaction with the public or target audience or to achieve an intercultural reconciliation. Therefore, food is an invariable part of human life and represents a history, tradition and culture. Every country on earth has its own unique cuisine and culinary history . For this reason, learning the history of a nation can be started from the culinary culture of that country.
On the other hand, traditional cuisines can be the source and target of international interaction in the world. The aim of this study, which was determined based on the effect of gastrodiplomacy practices to improve the country's policies; The aim is to emphasize the importance of using food as an international diplomacy method and to consider Turkey's rich and deep-rooted culinary culture within this framework. In addition, due to the small number of studies on gastrodiplomacy in Turkey, it is aimed to contribute to the literature and raise awareness in the academic field.
The Concept and Scope of Gastrodiplomacy
It is seen that many events experienced in all periods of history are related to food. Gastronomy is not only a process related to the preparation, production and consumption of food and beverages , but also a concept that finds its place in a cultural, economic, ideological, political and social structure. Therefore , it is possible to say that gastronomy is an important force in the diplomatic relations of nations. For example, at the dinner given to Clerides , the Greek leader of Rauf Denktaş's period, for the first time in the TRNC Presidential Palace, Mr.Choosing the "imambayildi", which they often use in their dinners, as the entrance dish, aimed to put a smile on Klerides' face. The “bread kadayıf” served as dessert is Klerides' own choice. When he received the invitation of Rauf Denktaş, he replied, "If they make bread kadayıf, I will come". After this dinner, the negotiations gained momentum and at the end of 2002, the negotiations of the period showed a positive development (Kıbriskenthaber, 2018).
Diplomacy is the representation of states abroad, in embassies or international conferences. In addition, meeting the important statesmen of the countries is a form of diplomacy (Gecowets, 2015). However, developments in the field of international relations cause the concept of diplomacy to change. For example, in 2018, Turkish cuisine was promoted and attracted great attention at the meetings attended by Princess Besma bint Ali of Jordan at the Turkish embassy in Amman, the capital of Jordan (Public Bulletin, 2018). Therefore, food, which brings continents, cultures and peoples together, has become one of the most attractive branches of diplomacy in international relations and has taken part in this process.
The concept of food in interstate diplomacy has been considered important for centuries and has been instrumental in the establishment of many political and commercial agreements. Even in ancient societies where there was no state system, political relations were established or existing relations were strengthened by trades based on the exchange of spices and salt with gastronomic value (Ichijo & Ranta, 2018). It is possible to say that this situation is similar in the modern world. One of the main reasons underlying the 15th and 16th century Europe's desire for geographical expansion and the race for colonialism is the need for food. This need has turned into one of the basic elements of politics, as geographical settlement, wars or discoveries become decisive (Nau, 1978).
In international politics, food is an effective tool that is used directly. According to Nau (1978), there are two purposes on the basis of states' use of food in their diplomacy practices. The first of these is to influence the food market around the world and thus to shape economic and political relations. By controlling the structure and functions of the food market, it is to dominate the management of all processes related to efficiency, equality, price and trade. From this point of view, it is to enable global food production and consumption to reach tolerable standards from all dimensions. Another purpose of using food as a diplomatic tool is; It is due to the effects of food on decision making processes.
In addition, the fact that shared food creates positive effects such as enabling social interaction between people, providing rapprochement between different groups, is also accepted as an indicator of hierarchical power and obedience power. It is also noteworthy that the meals eaten as a community have a social and psychological effect that strengthens relationships (Kul, 2019).
What is the Historical Development of Gastrodiplomacy ?
There has always been a strong connection between food culture and diplomacy. For more than 12,000 years, people have shared their food (Spence, 2016, p. 1). To put it more generally, “There is no great event in history, not even a conspiracy theory that was not designed, arranged or studied over food” (Steel, 2008, p. 220).
Social entertainment with meals has always been seen as a necessary tool for diplomacy, as can be understood from "the ambassadors' habit of always having their cooks with them to protect themselves from poisoning or to poison them" (Constantinou, 1996, p. 125).
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, a French lawyer, politician and Deputy of the National Constituent Assembly, but more famous as a French gastronome, presented various aphorisms showing the importance of culinary culture in daily life in his book “The Physiology of Taste”:
“The fate of nations depends on their diet”; “Tell me what kind of food you eat, and I will tell you what kind of man you are”; “The discovery of a new food brings more happiness to humanity than the discovery of a new star.” (Brillat-Savarin, 2009, p.3),
In the early ages, societies were built on a system that covered food production and distribution, in which food was used as a means of payment, and after the emergence of different civilizations, food helped to connect these societies (Standage, 2009, p. 13). Even the modern world was discovered as Europeans made efforts to abolish the spice monopoly of Arab traders and create new food trade routes. The lure of spices encouraged Alexandrian and later Roman sailors to bypass Arabia to the west coast of India and head towards Europe.
This resulted in the most powerful empires of Eurasia being linked by trade routes. In the 15th century, the Islamic world held approximately 80% of the trade with the East, providing a "fertile environment in which trade could develop". This resulted in Europeans trying to find alternative routes to the east, most importantly, spices helped “Columbus go west, Vasco de Gama to create new sea routes to the east” and “inspired the world's first circulation”. However, when spices became more economical in the 17th century, they ceased to be an important tool for diplomacy of the period (Lusa & Jakasevic, 2017).
During the ancient Greek period (630-480 BC), the Greeks especially loved the symposium as an ideal male-only form of entertainment and drinking, followed by the main meal. B.C. After the Macedonian invasion of Greece in the 4th century, the symposium became “a little more” complex and meaningful. Alexander the Great “expanded Greek culture throughout his empire from the Adriatic in the west to the Ganges in the east” (Weiss Adamson & Segan, 2008, pp. 7-17). The welcoming of foreign ambassadors included gastronomic practices, including welcome visits by the country's own ambassadors. After the end of their mission, Athenian ambassadors were always invited to a public dinner. In other words, the importance of shared meals is “what is shared at the dinner table,
Control of food sources has often been used as an effective weapon in wars. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus, one of the writers of the Roman Empire period, explained this situation as "arms are destroyed by hunger rather than wars, hunger is more cruel than the sword" (Milner, 1996, p. 26). Food supplies and logistics played an important role in Alexander the Great's conquests, the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage, and the subsequent American Revolutionary War and Napoleon's victories.
After the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon concluded that “Armies march on their stomachs” (Standage, 2009, p. 144).
An interesting example of gastrodiplomacy is the Turkish ambassador who came to the King of France in the 18th century and allegedly included the person who found Turkish coffee among the countless kitchen workers (Constantinou, 1996, p. 125). Gastronomy also played an important role in diplomatic communication between the Ottoman Empire and the Europeans. In addition to this importance, other gastronomic differences also played a role in the influence of the elite layers of the two countries from each other's cuisine. Accustomed to small and private meals eaten in silence, without a separate dining room, separate from women, without napkins, forks or knives, the Ottomans were taken aback by their European customs. This situation was effective in the “starting of East-West gastronomic exoticism” (Lusa & Jakasevic, 2017).
A diplomat always tries to impress his guests with dishes from his home country, but he also shows respect by serving dishes from the guest's home country. The 'hot dog', for example, has been playing an important role in America's foreign relations since June 1939. President Franklin D. Roosevelt organized a picnic for the king and queen of England. One of the main approaches was that the Americans wanted to show their support to Britain in the upcoming war. However, The New York Times shared the story on the front page with the headline “The king tries hot dog and wants more” (Barry, 2009). This example shows how important food is in diplomacy. It is known that the king enjoyed popular American snacks and even sent a message of friendship and understanding while drinking beer (Lusa & Jakasevic, 2017).
In the 20th century, food assumed the role of “an ideological weapon during the Cold War” (Standage, 2009, p. 156). The most familiar example of food being used as a weapon against the communists occurred during the Berlin blockade (June 1948 - September 1949), when the Soviets blocked access to West Berlin by road, rail and canal. The Allies reacted by using the Berlin Blockade to transport supplies to people in West Berlin. A similar use of food is illustrated in a poster created by the USA in 1949 to draw attention to the blockade.
In the poster, a little girl is holding a glass of milk and a glass of milk is being dropped from the plane on which the girl is seen flying in the poster. The headline is: “Milk... the new weapon of democracy” (Lusa & Jakasevic, 2017).
1959 yılında Sovyet Birliği Hükümet Başkanı Nikita Khrushchev, ilk Amerikan hot dog’unu ABD’ye yaptığı bir ziyaret sırasında “ilk tadımını, güvenlik ajanları yiyeceğin üzerine bir Gayger sayacını tutana kadar beklemek zorunda kaldıktan sonra” (Barry, 2009) tatmıştır. Hot dog hakkında yorum yapması istendiğinde “harika, muhteşem” olarak yorumlamıştır” (WNYC.org, 2014). Bu, Soğuk Savaş'ın “gıda cephesinden” çatışmasının örneğidir (Lusa & Jakasevic, 2017).
The role of food in diplomacy can also be observed in South Korean President Park Chung Hee's letter to United States President Lyndon Johnson complaining that his soldiers fighting in Vietnam were suffering from a shortage of kimchi (a traditional Korean dish) (Sang-Hun, 2008). After the Americans funded the delivery of kimchi, Deputy Secretary of State William Bundy supposedly concluded that the Vietnam National Liberation Front concluded that “the Vietcong will never be able to hold back the Koreans when kimchi arrives” (Lusa & Jakasevic, 2017).
Occasional informal meals may be arranged for official visits, increasing diplomatic intimacy and “creating even more positive social interactions between diners.” (Spence, 2016, p. 2). For example, in 2001 President George W. Bush invited Russian President Vladimir Putin to his farm in Texas to discuss the situation in Afghanistan and the Anti-Missile Treaty and organized a barbecue dinner (Sanger, 2001). Chinese President Jiang Zemin was also hosted at Bush's farm in Crawfort during his recent visit to the United States, and the barbecue once again served the purpose of fostering friendly relations. As it was previously presented to President Putin, Prime Minister Tony Blair and Crown Prince Abdullah of Saudi Arabia, at the President of the United States of America, "
The nature of the meals served at diplomatic receptions and summits is very important for the decision-making process. For example, sweet tastes create a friendly effect, while bitter tastes increase hostility (Sagioglou & Greitemayer, 2014, pp. 1589-1597). According to former French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin, “the table; It is where power acts, tensions are alleviated, and relationships are built” (Watfa & Pallister, 2017).
In this direction, gastrodiplomacy is becoming more and more important day by day, because every country in the world has its own cuisine and culinary history. For this reason, learning the history of a nation can be started from the culinary culture of that country. Traditional cuisines can be the source and target of international interaction.
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in the World
Food has been a special area in diplomatic relations throughout history, but it has started to show itself strategically in the gastrodiplomacy studies of countries since the 2000s. It is possible to see gastrodiplomacy practices as a nation policy in most of the countries. For example; Countries such as South Korea, Peru, Thailand, Malaysia, Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, USA, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Australia, Italy, France, and Turkey are trying to increase economic investments by realizing the impressive properties that food can have, to share their country's heritage through food. used gastrodiplomacy practices.
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Thailand
Thailand is the first country to use gastrodiplomacy practices, cuisine and restaurants as cultural diplomacy representatives. Recognizing the increasing popularity of Thai restaurants around the world, the Thai government has launched the 'Global Thai' program to increase the number of Thai restaurants in the country from 5500 to 8000 within a year and to enable more people to get to know Thai cuisine. The Global Thai program aimed to make it easier for Thai restaurants abroad to import Thai food, to help them employ Thai chefs, and to find a low-interest loan financing program (The Economist, 2002). This increase in restaurant numbers, according to the Thai government, is as the journal The Economist (2002) points out,
Thai gastrodiplomacy practices continued with a second campaign titled 'Thailand: Kitchen of the World' after the Global Thai program. Within the Public Relations Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Thai gastrodiplomacy campaign aimed to emphasize the agricultural importance of Thailand, to inform about the food culture and to introduce the most popular Thai dishes to the world (Qianng, 2015). On the other hand, with Thai food, it aimed to educate both local and foreign participants on the history and current practices of Thai cuisine (Chapple-Sokol, 2013).
In addition, the campaign awarded a special "Thai Brand" certificate to Thai restaurants that meet the criteria and standards set by the Thai Ministry of Commerce. Exemplary restaurants that have received the “Thai Select” certificate must comply not only with controls and rules regarding hygiene, safety and taste, but also with standards related to the national image of Thailand in order to bring a unique appeal to the Thai people, culture and geography. Today , exemplary restaurant menus are required to present and promote certain Thai dishes, such as pad Thai and Thai green curry. In addition, they are expected to reflect a certain image or style of Thai culture through staff attire, decor and the atmosphere they create (Ranta, 2015).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Malaysia
Malaysia runs one of the most dynamic gastrodiplomacy campaigns, combining elements of culinary diplomacy and cultural diplomacy. In 2010, he launched the 'Malaysia Kitchen for the World' campaign, a powerful gastrodiplomacy initiative to raise awareness for Malaysian culture, cuisine and recipes. One of the most distinctive styles of Malaysian food highlighted in the campaign is Malaysia's Peranakan cuisine. Peranakan cuisine emerged as a result of the migration of the Chinese people to the Malay Peninsula and their assimilation there. Masterfully combining Malaysian and Chinese flavors, this authentic culinary treasure is made with thick white noodles, bean sprouts and mint; asam laksa, a slightly sour fish soup seasoned with tamarind acid;It contains flavors such as kari mee, which is a spicy Malay-Chinese riff on its soup (Rockower, 2012).
Malaysian Cuisine for the World agrees with famous Malaysian chefs to present Malaysian cuisine at various food fairs and food tasting events, and invites world-renowned chefs to the country to get to know Malaysian cuisine. The Malaysian Cuisine website introduces different Malaysian recipes as well as provides a comprehensive list of where Malaysian cuisine can be found in the world. The Malaysian Cuisine campaign also helps to organize financing for Malaysian restaurants and restaurateurs abroad to support the spread of Malaysian cuisine in the world (Rockower, 2012). The government's efforts in the field of gastrodiplomacy contributed to the promotion of the country and encouraged the discovery of touristic places and cultural identity (Nirwandy & Awang, 2014).
The campaign also pays attention to regional trends, as it deployed a food truck in New York City to capitalize on the growing food truck craze in America (Edge, 2010). Both the campaign and the Malaysian Cuisine food truck took advantage of social media to support their initiatives via Facebook and Twitter (Wilson, 2013).
The success of Malaysia's campaign comes from combining cultural diplomacy with culinary culture. In this context, Malaysia has set up a Malaysian night market in the most popular areas of many cities - for example, in the middle of London's Trafalgar Square. More recently, this public diplomacy campaign has touched both coasts of the United States by establishing a night market in Santa Monica's bustling 3rst Street Promenade entertainment complex and New York's Meatpacking District (Bishop, 2010, City Eating, 2010).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Peru
Although the use of gastrodiplomacy as a government tool is quite common, especially in Asia, the idea of promoting a nation's cuisine seems to be an unexplored method in other parts of the world, particularly Latin America. However, Peru stands out as a notable exception. In recent years, many organizations, including the Peruvian Gastronomy Society (APEGA), the Ministry of Commerce, the Ministries of Culture and Tourism, have engaged in a collaborative, concerted struggle to increase the global reputation and awareness of Peruvian cuisine. In other words, they aim to create a Peruvian Brand through gastrodiplomacy (Wilson, 2013).
The Peruvian government launched the “Cocina Peruana Para el Mundo” (Peruvian Cuisine for the World) campaign so that its social and economic investments can reach and support the Peruvian people more, and conveyed all the suggestions and strategies of this campaign to UNESCO. Among these suggestions, there is also the documentary film "De ollo Su Suenos" (food dreams) belonging to Peruvian culture. The suggestions submitted to UNESCO have not only been the reflective elements of the culinary culture, but also the indicators of Peru's identity, tradition, wealth, geography and history. Peruvian famous chef Perret said, “Peruvian cuisine is an expression of culture. Roots, traditions, historical heritage above all food, culture and identityis full of It is a true representation of our people.” Another Peruvian famous chef, Wong, states that “Whoever does not cooperate with this campaign is simply not patriotic, saying that the campaign serves a greater purpose besides promoting Peruvian cuisine in gastrodiplomacy studies (Wilson, 2013).
Gastón Acurio, the most important figure of Peruvian cuisine and also the son of a Peruvian politician, draws attention in Peru's gastrodiplomacy studies. As a culinary diplomat and an outstanding chef, Acurio emerges as the face of the UNESCO initiative to recognize Peruvian cuisine. It plays the role of the gastronomic ambassador of the Peruvian people internationally, by appearing on the websites of the campaigns and participating in the world-famous food festivals. He also became one of the first Peruvian chefs to bring Peruvian cuisine to the international dimension, opening restaurants in various countries, including the United States, Chile, Mexico and Spain. He also believes that campaigns can produce various solutions to social problems in Peru through cuisine. For example,
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in the United States
The hamburger restaurant chain of the United States, which is known all over the world, draws attention in the culinary category and beyond the food as a political-symbolic. Hamburger stands out as a symbol of the new consumer culture and national identity as well as a new way of life (Ichijo and Ranta, 2018). The "Mcdonaldization" strategy of the United States of America to use food on a global platform is seen as an important step in gastrodiplomacy practices (Onaran, 2015).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in South Korea
South Korea has turned to gastrodiplomacy as part of its increasing efforts in public diplomacy and nation branding. Seoul launched the 'Korean Cuisine to the World' campaign in April 2009. In order to differentiate itself especially from its neighbors Japan and China and to reflect the image of its own brands, it has initiated practices known as “Kimchi Diplomacy” in the literature. Kimchi is a pickle-like spicy and Korean cultural value made by carving vegetables. So much so that this concept, which penetrates many fields from art to sports, from politics to magazines, has spread to the smiles of people posing for photographs in daily life, saying "kimchi" (Karaosmanoğlu, 2017, p. 71).
In this context, kimchi is a national symbol for the people of South Korea. In fact, the "Kimchi Research Institute" was established for social and academic research of kimchi and became the pioneer of various sociological research (Kul, 2019, p. 117). It also announced that it aims to quadruple the number of Korean restaurants abroad to approximately 40,000 by 2017 with the campaigns implemented by the Korean government. A $40 million fund was created to organize Korean cuisine courses at world-renowned culinary schools and to support Korean cuisine students' participation in cooking schools and international food fairs with scholarships and donations (Rockower, 2012). For example, in 2017, South Korea Jeonju University Department of Gastronomy Lecturer Prof.Dr. JinaCha, CEO of a catering company
Kim Yoon-ok, the wife of South Korean President, is personally leading the Korean gastrodiplomacy campaign. Emphasizing that raising global awareness of Korean cuisine is one of the primary duties of the Korean government, Kim expressed this situation as "The cuisine not only reflects the cultural level of a nation, but also represents the brand value" (Kang, 2010).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Taiwan
Taiwan is another country that sees gastrodiplomacy as a way to increase its culinary reputation and as a tool of public and cultural diplomacy and uses it effectively. Taiwan's emergence as a culinary center has its roots in the Chinese civil war and the Cultural Revolution. With the Kuomintang's defeat in 1949 and its withdrawal to Taiwan, many upper-class Chinese fled to Taiwan and took many upper-class chiefs with them on their flight (Holbrook, 2007). During the Cultural Revolution that started in 1966, when the communists closed restaurants, which they saw as symbols of the bourgeoisie, more upper-class chefs fled to Taiwan (Rockower, 2012).
Similar to Korea, Taiwan's gastrodiplomacy campaign titled 'All in Good Taste: Savor the Flavors of Taiwan' aims to introduce Taiwanese culinary culture to the world. As Chairman Ma Ying-jeo explained, this promotion is among the primary duties of Taiwanese society and government: 'Promoting Taiwanese Cuisine to the world is a policy priority' (Caltonhill, 2011). In line with its efforts to raise awareness towards cultural and national branding, Taiwan's government announced its plan to develop Taiwan's culinary diplomacy in 2010. Taiwan has invested $1.1 billion ($34.2 million) over four years to expand its gastronomy businesses and promote Taiwanese cuisine in the international food industry (Taiwan Today, 2010).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Denmark, Norway and Sweden
With the combination of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the “Nordic Food Movement” was brought to life in order to promote the local dishes and culinary techniques of the northern culture. In November 2004, Scandinavian chefs and food experts met in Copenhagen to exchange ideas on the development of Scandinavian cuisine. The main objectives of this meeting are; To increase the awareness of Scandinavian cuisine, to ensure the preservation of traditional culinary practices, to obtain economic inputs with tourism and trade connection.
The main focal points of these northern countries, which come together with the understanding of the rising standard kitchen and industrialized production throughout the world; healthy eating activities are the idea of using natural and seasonal foods. In addition, with a "Scandinavian Diet" to be created, it is to realize a healthy nutrition system that other countries can adopt. In 2011, the council realized the benefits of the "Nordic Food Programme" for public diplomacy and launched the "Nordic Food Diplomacy" campaign (Kul, 2019, p. 121; USC Centur of Public Diplomacy, 2015).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Japan
Established in 2005, the "Japan Brand Study" program includes a "Food Research and Development" institution that works on the country's food history and culinary culture as a gastrodiplomacy strategy of the state. Over the years, the “Japanese Restaurants Abroad Organization” was established, which started its activities without seeking profit in order to manage and support the investments made in Japanese restaurants abroad. Organization that supports the development of restaurants that reflect Japanese culture and incorporate Japanese design and cultural aesthetics.He founded the Japanese culinary school Sozai in major cities such as Amsterdam, London, Los Angeles, and Paris. By holding some workshops in London and Paris, he invited many people from all over the world to workshops where Japanese chefs work. (USC Center Public Diplomacy, 2015).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Indonesia
Indonesia is one of the countries that conducts gastrodiplomacy studies. The program he applied comes from "Rendang", a meat dish. “Rendang Diplomacy” was designed with the understanding that the way to gain a place in hearts and minds is through the stomach, and was presented to the taste of Indonesian people with “Ayam Penyet”, an Indonesian dish. “Ayam Penyet” has contributed to the resolution of conflicts between the two countries by emphasizing the cultural similarities between Indonesia and Malaysia today. In 2008, awareness activities were carried out to promote Indonesian cuisine with the “Restaurant Brings Power” campaign at the Indonesian embassy of the USA (Kul, 2019, p. 122).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Italy
Italy is seen as one of the leading countries in the world in terms of cuisine. In this direction, he actively uses gastrodiplomacy studies. In the conference organized by the economic think tank Nomisma SPA in Bologno, the importance of food production and marketing for Italy was mentioned. At the conference, the country's leading diplomats and business people stated that these studies play an important role in domestic and international food, wine and tourism marketing in the country. Until 2017, the sector's numerical input to the country was 37 billion Euros. By the end of 2020, this figure is expected to exceed 50 billion Euros (Kul, 2019, p. 123, Ellwood, 2016).
The Nominisma conference was held right after the "Worldwide Week of Italian Cuisine". In these events, 1300 food-related activities such as mini shows attended by Italian ambassadors around the world, cooking activities, special food presentations by chefs were organized. The number of visitors reached 20 million in a period of 6 months with these works, which took place among the numerous events held at the Milan Expo World Fair in 2015. Again, thanks to all these events, investors and producers came together and showed a significant improvement in the more active use of the food supply chain. The country's leading political and industrial people have realized that food, food and wine are a very important source of income. Also Italian food cultureand Italian cuisine concepts and the increase of national consciousness (Kul, 2019, p. 124).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in France
France is one of the countries where the concept of cuisine is highly developed. France, which uses gastrodiplomacy programs effectively, continues to carry out extensive studies in this direction. French cuisine, which is much more luxurious and appealing to the upper class when compared to Italian cuisine, has been entitled to the title of "UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage", which Italy does not have, and has tried to deliver French cuisine to the whole world under the name of "Gaut Français" cultural heritage (Kul, 2019). , p. 124, Elwood, 2016).
On the other hand, in many parts of the world, there is a prevailing opinion that French cuisine has lost its former popularity. France has understood the importance of conveying to today's world that it has a cuisine that appeals not only to the noble class, but to everyone. In this direction, former French Prime Minister Laurent Fabius stated that he sees gastrodiplomacy as a tool that enables developments in foreign trade and tourism (Kul, 2019, p. 124, Chapple-Sokol, 2015).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Australia
Australia, like other parts of the world, is one of the countries that has stepped into gastrodiplomacy studies. In 2014, the government identified 12 international target markets. He financed the $10 million "Restaurant Australia" program under the name of the "Nothing Like Australia" campaign for one year (Kul, 2019, p. 125, USC Public Diplomacy, 2015).
The campaign encourages both consumers and culinary producers to share their taste experiences with stories and on social media platforms. In addition, web sites have been established where a group of 80 people, consisting of famous faces of the country, share their stories aloud. The campaign ended with a dinner organization called “Invite the World to Dinner” with the participation of 250 people (Kul, 2019, p. 125).
Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Turkey
Turkey has a rich culinary culture due to its historical past and having hosted many civilizations. Therefore, it is in a more advantageous position to establish more permanent bonds from person to person. Turkey, like the Ottoman Empire, is located in a cultural mosaic as it has a multinational heritage. From this point of view, it is noteworthy that more concrete steps will be taken in relations with other countries through food.
Turkish lands are located on the Silk Road and Spice Road, and trade routes in the world are always shaped by foods such as rice, sugar, spices and coffee (Rockower, 2012). In this respect, Turkey is considered to be at the center of world cuisine. Turks who migrated from Central Asia to Anatolia have a rich culture due to their historical background. The use of meat and fermented dairy products by the nomadic people of Central Asia, the grains of Mesopotamia, the vegetables and fruits of the Mediterranean environment, and the spices of South Asia were effective in the formation of a rich " Turkish food culture " (Baysal, 1993b, p. 12). .
The synthesis of different food understandings of various world cuisines and the creation of new cuisines, new tastes and new dishes is called " Fusion Cuisine " (Can, Sünnetçioğlu & Özkaya, 2012). With this feature, Turkish cuisine has directly penetrated foreign nations because it is described as Fusion Cuisine (Önçel, 2015). Meals prepared at the working dinner of the G20 Summit , hosted by Turkey for the first time in 2015 etc. many Turkish and Ottoman food culturesThe flavors of Turkish cuisine were presented to world leaders in the summit menu (TC Presidency, 2015). In addition, the synchronized service implemented in the organization , which is followed minute by minute from the world media, is important in terms of using gastronomy as a diplomatic tool.
This application, which had a wide impact in Turkey and the world, was appreciated by foreign countries and strengthened Turkey's national brand image (Aksoy & Çekiç, 2020). Also Turkish culinary cultureand its hospitality reveals its humorous side as well as eating and drinking. Sympathetic food names and the culture of joking while eating also play an active role in strengthening relations with other countries. For example, during a visit to Gaziantep by a state dignitary, the best dishes of the region were served. But since every dish served with pistachio, “How would you like your coffee?” When asked, the guest said “Peanut-free” (Önçel, 2015). Considering the French diplomat Talleyrand's words to Napoleon Bonaparte: "Give me a good chef and I will make good deals for you" (The Korea Times, 2016), qualified chefs have been trained for the international platform in Turkey.
The concept of gastrodiplomacy emerges at the common point of eating and diplomacy studies. One of the main purposes of gastrodiplomacy is to make food a means of promotion as a cultural element and to strengthen diplomatic relations in this way. Functionally appealing to the senses, food plays a role in the emergence of intimate and emotional moments. It emerges as a representative of experience with the bond it establishes with memory (Rockower, 2012). From this perspective, gastrodiplomacy focuses on the idea of gaining the mind and heart with emotional connections. States use the gravitational power of food in this direction to increase its reputation. Gastrodiplomacy enables a state to use its culture and traditional values as an element of attraction.
In this direction, the gastrodiplomacy practices realized in Turkey are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Gastrodiplomacy Practices in Turkey
|
Year
|
Category
|
Application
|
|
2004
|
Turquality Project
|
Branding Activity
|
|
2010
|
Traditional Turkish Cuisine Campaign
|
Promotion
|
|
2011
|
Traditional Ceremonial Kebab
|
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
|
|
2012
|
Mesir Paste Festival
|
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
|
|
2013
|
Turkish Coffee and Tradition
|
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
|
|
2014
|
Gaziantep City of Gastronomy
|
UNESCO Creative Cities Network
|
|
2014
|
Turkish – Japanese Food Culture Project
|
Diplomatic Activity
|
|
2014
|
Fine Bread Making and Sharing Tradition (Common File)
|
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
|
|
2014
|
Home Turkey Campaign
|
Promotion
|
|
2014
|
Gastrohunt Project
|
Promotion
|
|
2015
|
Hatay Gastronomy City
|
UNESCO Creative Cities Network
|
|
2015
|
Presidential Synchronized Service
|
Service industry
|
Source: (Aksoy & Çekiç, 2018, p. 724)
According to Table 1, gastrodiplomacy practices applied in Turkey are especially; Activities such as branding activity, promotion, diplomatic activity, UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, UNESCO Creative Cities Network, diplomatic activity and service sector, which can be examples of
gastrodiplomacy applications, have been realized. In addition, Afyonkarahisar was selected as a gastronomy city by UNESCO in 2019, and Afyonkarahisar cuisine has taken its place among Turkey's gastrodiplomacy strategies.
National cuisines are extremely effective elements in the promotion of a nation. The cultural and historical richness of national cuisines is seen as an attractive element for tourists. In addition, information about the culture living in a country can be obtained through national cuisines. For this reason, national cuisines are used as a cultural communication tool. Traditional Turkish culinary culture can be used effectively as a means of communication between countries (Bucak & Yiğit, 2019).
In this direction, examples of gastrodiplomacy realized within the scope of promotion of Turkish Cuisine are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Gastrodiplomacy Applications in the Promotion of Turkish Cuisine
|
No.
|
Event Date
|
Place
|
Event Name
|
|
one
|
2014
|
Russia
|
Turkish Food Competition
|
|
2
|
2014
|
Switzerland
|
Turkish Cuisine Promotion Days
|
|
3
|
2016
|
Canada
|
Turkish Coffee Meets Torontonians
|
|
4
|
2016
|
France
|
Introducing Istanbul Cuisine in the 19th Century
|
|
5
|
2016
|
Malaysia
|
Turkish Food Week
|
|
6
|
2017
|
Australia
|
Taste of Turkey
|
|
7
|
2017
|
Bahrain
|
Bahrain Turkish Food Week
|
|
8
|
2017
|
Spain
|
Turkish Culinary Culture Week
|
|
9
|
2017
|
Japan
|
Turkish Cuisine Encyclopedia
|
|
10
|
2017
|
Canada
|
Turkish Cuisine Promotion Day
|
|
11th
|
2017
|
Poland
|
Turkish Coffee from Past to Present
|
|
12
|
2018
|
Chinese
|
Turkish Cuisine Week Event as part of Turkey Tourism Year Event
|
|
13
|
2018
|
Chinese
|
Number of Tasting Kitchen Turkey
|
|
14
|
2018
|
Ukraine
|
Kamenchi Turkish Coffee Festival
|
Source: (Bucak, Yiğit & Okat, 2019, p. 31)
According to Table 2, within the scope of promotion of Turkish cuisine, cooking competitions on Turkish cuisine, Turkish cuisine
Within the framework of promotional days and weeks on its culture and history, events on the history and culture of Turkish coffee, and publications on Turkish cuisine, 14 activities that can set an example for gastrodiplomacy practices have been realized (Bucak, Yiğit & Okat, 2019).
Conclusion and Recommendations
It is seen that gastronomy has emerged as a growing, developing and multi-disciplinary field today. It is noteworthy that food, which draws attention as an important part of this change, plays an important role in the relations between countries. While diplomacy requires a high level of communication from state to state, public diplomacy is the act of communication between states and non-state actors and foreign public. In contrast, gastrodiplomacy is a public diplomacy attempt to communicate culinary culture to the foreign public more widely.
Gastrodiplomacy aims to develop the nation brand that provides catering services through cultural diplomacy that emphasizes and supports awareness and understanding of national culinary culture with a wide range of foreign public. Gastrodiplomacy, which is old as a concept and quite new in diplomacy; emerges as a combination of
Gastronomy Concepts and diplomacy. Gastrodiplomacy is a public-to-state communication practice that aims to introduce the country's culinary culture to the international community and uses traditional cuisine as the main tool for this purpose.
In addition, gastrodiplomacy draws attention as a symbol of nonverbal communication, which is considered a very powerful way of communication in diplomacy. Gastrodiplomacy includes more than promoting a national cuisine on an international platform. Gastrodiplomacy helps nations use their local cuisines as a source of soft power. Thus, since the policies of the countries are strengthened with the relationship of domestic foods that help to achieve positive economic results in order to advance the tourism activity on the international platform, it increases the attractiveness and attraction of gastrodiplomacy.
It is seen that these practices are not only on a small scale, but also play an important role in state and non-state actors. It is known that Asian countries successfully use gastrodiplomacy campaigns as a cultural communication tool in international relations. Considering the food diversity of Turkey, which has hosted many civilizations in history, it is seen that it needs to take more concrete steps regarding gastrodiplomacy strategies and campaigns. At the beginning of these steps are diplomatic decisions. It is striking that gastronomy is used as an effective element in diplomacy. Below are suggestions for the implementation of gastrodiplomacy studies in Turkey;
• While hosting international meetings, sample restaurant menus and/or shows prepared by world-famous Turkish chefs should be given more space.
• State-run restaurants may open near embassies abroad, serving Turkish cuisine and employing qualified chefs. In addition, the dishes prepared in these establishments should be served in food and beverage establishments with cultural tunes, and thus Turkish culture should be promoted. The target customers of these enterprises should be foreign customers.
• In international diplomatic relations, Turkish food and beverages should be used effectively within the framework of protocol rules and gestures should be made to foreign countries (For example, giving a Turkish coffee cup as a gift...)
• Social media, which has been closely followed by the whole world in recent years, should be used effectively within the scope of traditional Turkish cuisine promotion activities.
• The contribution of the gastrodiplomacy promotion activities implemented in Turkish embassies abroad by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism should be increased.
•Practices in the form of "sister kitchen", similar to the "sister city" practices applied in other areas, should be implemented.
•International interactions can be made accompanied by gastronomy festivals. Thus, it may be possible for the citizens of the country to get to know each other better.
• Within the scope of gastrodiplomacy strategies, restaurants and franchise networks of Turkish cuisine products should be expanded.
• Collaboration should be made with stakeholders in gastronomy, tourism and related common areas, which have a great impact on the target audience of gastrodiplomacy campaigns.
• In order to increase the awareness and reliability of traditional Turkish cuisine culture , important geographical places and famous people of the country should be included in gastrodiplomacy campaigns.
• In order to introduce Turkish cuisine to the whole world and raise awareness, applied education programs should be organized for foreign people.
With this study, which is one of the limited number of gastrodiplomacy studies in Turkey, it is aimed to raise awareness in the academic and sectoral fields and to bring gastrodiplomacy to the agenda in the field of tourism and gastronomy. This study is limited within the scope of gastrodiplomacy practices in the world and in Turkey.
Considering these limitations, the menu analyzes of the countries that apply gastronomy products in international relations can be examined in future studies.
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As the head chef Ahmet ÖZDEMİR, I see the source:
Mr. Alper ÇEVİK and Mr. I sincerely thank Zeynep ASLAN for her academic work titled "A Research on Gastrodiplomacy Practices in the World and in Turkey" and wish her success in her professional life. It will definitely be considered as an example by those who need it in professional kitchens, related research and in the world of gastronomy.